(Hypertension. 1995;25:260-265.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Different Flow Regulation Mechanisms Between Celiac and Mesenteric Vascular Beds in Conscious Rats
From the Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Hiroshima (Japan).
Correspondence to N. Iida, Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, University of Hiroshima, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima 734, Japan.
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Abstract The aims of this study were to elucidate the vasoconstrictor mechanism that mediates the changes in celiac and mesenteric vascular resistances during vasoconstriction and hypotension induced by ganglionic blockade and to explore the preferential mechanism that contributes to the elevation of arterial pressure in conscious spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). In conscious SHR and normotensive control rats, blood flow and arterial pressure were measured with an implanted electromagnetic flow probe and an indwelling arterial catheter. Peripheral vascular resistance was calculated as arterial pressure divided by regional flow. Celiac contribution to the hypertension in SHR was below average for the entire body and was smaller than that from the superior mesenteric bed. The increase of mesenteric resistance with arterial pressure elevation after ganglionic blockade suggests that mesenteric blood flow is regulated by a stretch-dependent myogenic mechanism, whereas celiac blood flow is regulated preferentially by the sympathetic neural mechanism. It is speculated that the flow superregulation in the mesenteric bed in SHR is due to the enhanced myogenic response and contributes to the early stage of hypertension.
Key Words: celiac artery • conscious SHR • ganglion blockade • mesenteric artery • myogenic response • sympathetic tone
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Hypertensive arterioles maintain higher levels of active tension than normotensive arterioles. Increased myogenic response has been considered to potentiate hypertension by contributing to the increase in vascular resistance. The mechanisms of vasoconstriction responsible for the elevated peripheral resistance associated with the development and maintenance of hypertension have been a subject of intensive investigation. For the most part, the increased total peripheral resistance found in hypertension has been associated with the autonomic nervous system,1 the renin-angiotensin system,2 and hemodynamic events in the local myogenic mechanism.3 4 The change in the reactivity of the myogenic mechanism is most likely related to the process of autoregulation, whereby upstream arterioles attempt to maintain constant capillary pressure and blood flow.5 It has been hypothesized that the myogenic mechanism is due to changes in the cellular mechanism of vascular smooth muscle or endothelium underlying vascular smooth muscle contraction.6
We have previously reported that hypertension in conscious spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR)7 is largely sustained by elevation of peripheral resistance in the superior mesenteric and hindquarter areas8 and that the elevated peripheral resistance in the hindquarters is for the most part ascribable to an abnormal sympathetic vasoconstrictor tone, whereas that in the superior mesenteric area is not.9 Recently, we have obtained results showing that the contribution of the celiac area to hypertension in SHR is quantitatively less than that of the mesenteric and hindquarter areas, but the elevated celiac resistance in SHR is maintained by the sympathetic neural mechanism.10 The splanchnic circulation makes an important hemodynamic contribution to the early development of hypertension, and the increase in vascular resistance is apparent in the stomach, small and large intestines, pancreas, and liver.11 Nevertheless, little information is available regarding the celiac blood flow, which perfuses the stomach, liver, spleen, and a part of the duodenum and pancreas, compared with the superior mesenteric flow.12 The celiac and mesenteric blood flows in the splanchnic circulation have been speculated to be maintained by a different vasoconstrictor mechanism.11 13 Presumably, the clarification of the mechanism of peripheral flow regulation must provide a useful indication of the potential mechanism that contributes to the development and maintenance of hypertension.
The purposes of this study are to elucidate the vasoconstrictor mechanism that mediates the changes in celiac and mesenteric vascular resistances during vasoconstriction and hypotension induced by ganglionic blockade and to explore the preferential mechanism that contributes to the elevation of arterial pressure in conscious SHR.
The degree of contribution of the peripheral vascular resistance to the
hypertension in SHR was quantified by introducing 
(resistance) and
ß (conductance) indexes. The magnitude of vascular compensatory
response in peripheral vascular beds was further estimated by
calculating the closed-loop gain (autoregulation index, G) in vascular
beds and the change of regional wall tension (tension index, 
)
during the change of arterial pressure.
|
Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Animals used in this study were maintained and used in accordance with the guidelines of the Animal Care Advisory Committee of the University of Hiroshima School of Medicine and the "Guiding Principles for Care and Use of Animals in the Field of Physiology Science" of the Physiological Society of Japan (1988).
Animal Preparation
Male SHR (n=28) and normotensive control Wistar rats (NCR)
(n=28) 10 to 27 weeks of age were used in this study. They were
anesthetized with thiamylal sodium (50 mg/kg IP). Fig 1
illustrates the surgical preparation. The celiac (n=30) or mesenteric
(n=26) artery was reached retroperitoneally by a left flank incision,
and an electromagnetic flow probe (type FC, Nihon Kohden) with an
internal diameter of 1 or 1.5 mm was implanted around it. The wire from
the probe was passed under the skin and exteriorized at the dorsal
neck. A polyethylene tube (PE-10 fused to PE-20) for pressure
measurement was inserted into the terminal aorta from the right femoral
artery. Another tube for drug administration was inserted into the left
external jugular vein. The opposite end of each tube was also
exteriorized at the neck. After the operation, the rat was housed
separately in a white plastic cage measuring 35x30x17 (depth) cm and
containing wood chips. Water and food pellets were given ad
libitum.
|
Recording of Flow and Pressure
Three or 4 days after the operation, celiac or mesenteric blood
flow and arterial pressure were measured in the rats in their home
cage. The electromagnetic flowmeter used was a Nihon Kohden MFV-1100.
Both flow and pressure were smoothed with a resistance and capacitance
(RC) filter with a time constant of 1 second and recorded by a pen
writer. After baseline values were obtained, hexamethonium bromide
(90.5 mmol/L) was infused at a rate of 0.8 mg/min for a total dose of
25 mg/kg for ganglionic blockade. Celiac peripheral resistance or
mesenteric peripheral resistance was calculated as arterial pressure
divided by celiac or mesenteric blood flow, respectively. All
flow-related variables were indexed to body weight. The dependency of
vascular resistance and blood pressure on neurally mediated
vasoconstrictor tone was estimated by the magnitude of the drop in
these parameters after interruption of sympathetic transmission with
the ganglionic blocking agent. The group t test was used to
determine the significance of the difference between SHR and NCR and
the paired t test for the significance of change on
ganglionic blockade.
Computation of , ß, and Indexes
The degree of contribution of a vascular area to hypertension
was quantified by two indexes: resistance index, , and conductance
index, ß.14
The resistance index is the contribution of the peripheral
resistance (r) of the particular area to the changes in total
peripheral resistance (R) and is calculated as
 | (1) |
 |
 |
 |
 |
where Fo and Po are control values in NCR at the outset and indicate peripheral blood flow and arterial pressure, respectively. F and P indicate blood flow and arterial pressure, respectively, in SHR. Fw is cardiac output.
The conductance index ß indicates what percentage of the change in total peripheral conductance, the inverse of total peripheral resistance, is contributed by a particular area and is calculated as
 | (2) |
where 1/r is peripheral conductance, 1/R is total conductance,
and 
is the difference between the hypertensive and normotensive
control rats. In the computation of ß, cardiac index,
Fw, was assumed to be 22 mL/min per 100 g body
weight for both SHR and NCR15 and under the condition that
cardiac output per body weight did not show any difference between SHR
and NCR at rest.16 Total peripheral resistance (R) was
calculated by dividing arterial pressure (P) by cardiac output
(Fw).
Thus, indicates how intensely the particular area participates in
the hypertension. When =1, the increase in the local peripheral
resistance compared with normotensive controls is equal to that of
total peripheral resistance, and the participation of the area is
average over the entire body. Similarly, the participation is above
average if >1 and below average if <1. On the other hand, ß
indicates the percentage of the total conductance decrease, compared
with controls, that is contributed by the particular area.
The autoregulation index G denotes the fractional compensation of the flow regulation system and is given17 as
 | (3) |
 |
When G=0, the vascular bed behaves as a rigid system of tubes. If 0<G<1, the vascular system indicates autoregulatory behavior, but compensation for disturbance in perfusion pressure is incomplete. Perfect autoregulation is denoted by G=1. The vascular system indicates overcompensation (ie, superregulation) if G>1, and the vascular system indicates passive behavior for perfusion pressure changes (nonautoregulation) if G<0.
Furthermore, to estimate the compensatory strength of vascular wall
tension (that is, the mechanical factor of flow autoregulation) against
the arterial pressure changes, we attempted to theoretically derive the
tension index as
 | (4) |
 |
 |
by assuming that peripheral blood flow is Poiseuille's flow and
the vascular wall is characterized by Laplace's law. Here, the percent
change of wall tension, T/To
(=P/Po+D/Do), is derived from the
differential equation
(1+T/To)=(1+P/Po)(1+D/Do)
in Laplace's law
(To=PoDo/2,
Do is vessel diameter). The percent change of vessel
diameter, D/Do
[=1/(1+r/ro)1/4-1], is also
computed from the percent change of vascular resistance,
1/(1+r/r)=(1+D/D)4, derived from the
differential equation in Poiseuille's law
[r=8
L/
(D/2)4].
The tension index indicates how intensely the vascular wall tension
of the particular vascular area compensates for the changes of arterial
pressure. When =1, the percent change in the vascular wall tension
is equal to that of total arterial pressure; that is, the vessel
diameter remains nearly constant (isometric contraction). Similarly,
the vascular wall tension increases passively during the increases of
arterial pressure if >1. If 0<<1, the vascular wall tension is
compensated actively by vasoconstrictor responses with the increases of
arterial pressure. When =0, the vascular wall tension remains
constant (isotonic contraction).
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Effects of Ganglionic Blockade on Celiac and Mesenteric Vascular Beds
Fig 2 shows simultaneous recordings of arterial pressure and celiac and superior mesenteric flows in single SHR and single NCR. The recordings show the changes that occurred in mean values of arterial pressure, celiac flow, and mesenteric flow on ganglionic blockade with hexamethonium bromide. Celiac flow in SHR (B) remarkably increased inversely with the reduction of arterial pressure during the infusion of hexamethonium bromide, whereas celiac flow in NCR (A) increased slightly. On the other hand, mesenteric flow in both NCR (C) and SHR (D) decreased consistently with the reduction of arterial pressure.
|
The Table summarizes changes of mean arterial pressure, celiac and mesenteric blood flows, and heart rate in response to sequential ganglionic blockade with hexamethonium bromide in both SHR and NCR. In this depressor response to ganglionic blockade, mean celiac flow increased significantly in SHR but not in NCR. The mean values of celiac resistance decreased significantly in both groups (P<.001 for SHR and P<.025 for NCR), but the percent decrease was significantly greater in SHR than in NCR (-40.2±11.9% versus -9.6±11.6%, P<.001). After blockade, the mean value of celiac resistance was even lower in SHR than in NCR. In contrast, mean mesenteric flow decreased significantly in both SHR and NCR (P<.001) after ganglionic blockade, and mean values of mesenteric resistance increased slightly in both groups. The difference between mesenteric resistances in SHR and NCR remained significant even after blockade. Mean heart rate was higher in NCR than in SHR and was not affected by the infusion of hexamethonium bromide.
|
Pressure-Resistance Relations in Celiac and Mesenteric Vascular
Beds
Celiac and mesenteric resistances in both NCR and SHR increased
consistently with the elevation of arterial pressure, as shown in Fig 3. The changes of vascular resistance during the
elevation of arterial pressure were given mathematically by the
regression curves as y=28.6 e0.006x
and y=12.4 e0.007x, for
celiac and mesenteric beds, respectively. The pressure-dependent
resistance curves demonstrated that celiac and mesenteric beds have
autoregulatory ability to restore blood flow toward normal levels for
arterial pressure elevation and that the intensity of autoregulation
was increased in SHR (as indicated by exponential slopes of the
regression curves).
|
After ganglionic blockade with hexamethonium bromide, however, the pressure-dependent resistance curves exhibited quite different changes in celiac and mesenteric vascular beds, as shown in Fig 4. Celiac resistance decreased inversely with the elevation of arterial pressure, and the celiac vasoconstrictor response almost disappeared after ganglionic blockade. The changes of celiac resistance responsible for elevated arterial pressure were expressed by the regression curves as y=86.1 e-0.007x. The results suggest that celiac vasoconstrictor response is mediated by sympathetic vasoconstrictor activity. In contrast, mesenteric vasoconstrictor response was further potentiated in both NCR and SHR after ganglionic blockade. The mesenteric resistances in NCR and SHR increased positively with the elevation of arterial pressure (NCR: from 28.4±8.0 to 29.5±6.1 mm Hg · mL-1 · min-1 · 100 g; SHR: from 41.3±10.4 to 44.3±15.3 mm Hg · mL-1 · min-1 · 100 g). The regression curve for mesenteric resistance was obtained as y=8.36 e0.014x. The slope of the regression curve was twice that before ganglionic blockade. These facts suggest that the elevated mesenteric resistance after blockade is mediated by a few local mechanisms without a sympathetic neural mechanism.
|
Hemodynamic Responses of Hypertensive Celiac and Mesenteric Beds to
Elevated Arterial Pressure
Fig 5 shows the hemodynamic effects of elevated
arterial pressure on peripheral resistance ( index, Fig 5A),
regional wall tension ( index, Fig 5B), and regional flow
autoregulation (G index) in hypertensive celiac and mesenteric beds.
These indexes were derived from Equations 1, 3, and 4 by calculating
the difference in values between each SHR in reference to the mean
value for NCR. In hypertensive celiac and mesenteric vascular beds,
peripheral resistance increased (A, >0) and regional wall tension
decreased (B, <1), consistent with the increase of flow
autoregulation (G>0) during the elevation of arterial pressure from
the level of NCR to that of SHR. Peripheral blood flow in the
mesenteric bed was superregulated over the upper limit of
autoregulation (quadrant I, G>1), whereas blood flow in the celiac bed
was almost regulated within the range of autoregulation (quadrant II,
1>G>0). The vasoconstrictor response of vascular wall to stretch
stimuli was greater in the mesenteric than the celiac bed. The flow
superregulation in the mesenteric bed may contribute to the early stage
of hypertension.
|
On the other hand, the compensatory response in the hypertensive celiac
bed disappeared almost completely (quadrant III, G<0) after ganglionic
blockade, as shown in Fig 6. The celiac resistance
decreased (A, <0) and the vascular wall tension increased (B,
>1), consistent with the decline of celiac flow autoregulation
(G<0) during the elevation of arterial pressure from the level of NCR
to that of SHR. The contribution of the celiac bed to the hypertension
in SHR was shown to be sustained preferentially by increased
sympathetic activity. In contrast, mesenteric resistance further
increased (A, >0) after ganglionic blockade and wall tension
decreased (B, <1), consistent with the enhancement of
vasoconstrictor responses with the elevation of arterial pressure. The
compensatory response in the hypertensive mesenteric bed was promoted
more than at the preblockade level (G>1). Presumably, the increased
superregulation in the mesenteric area must be due to the changes of
the cellular mechanism of vascular smooth muscle caused by sympathetic
denervation because the same phenomenon was also observed in the
mesenteric bed in NCR.
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Our criterion for the presence of sympathetic vasoconstrictor tone in a vascular area is whether or not the regional peripheral resistance decreases significantly after ganglionic blockade.18 According to this criterion, both SHR and NCR were judged to have a sympathetic vasoconstrictor tone in the celiac area (Fig 2). The mean percent decrease in celiac resistance after ganglionic blockade was significantly greater in SHR than in NCR, and the mean celiac flow increased despite the decrease in mean arterial pressure, whereas the mean value of the flow in NCR decreased (see the Table). Mean flow compensatory response (G) decreased from 0.76±0.57 to -2.00±3.39 after ganglionic blockade, and the tension strength of celiac vascular wall (
) increased from 0.87±0.13 to 1.45±0.87. These findings
suggest that the celiac blood flow is regulated positively by the
sympathetic neural mechanism and the sympathetic tone may have been
greater in SHR than in NCR at the outset.10 The
participation of the celiac area to the hypertension of SHR was also
estimated from and ß indexes. The mean value of the index of
0.84±0.76 indicates that the participation was quantitatively below
average. The ß index value of 6.7±4.7% suggests that the
contribution of the celiac area to the hypertension is far smaller than
that of the superior mesenteric area (18.7±11.3%).
Unexpectedly, the contribution of the mesenteric area to hypertension
increased more intensely after ganglionic blockade. The mean values of
the and ß indexes further increased, respectively, from
1.47±1.25 to 2.74±2.98 and from 18.7±11.3% to 19.6±24.8%, and the
tension strength of the vascular wall () decreased inversely from
0.78±0.20 to 0.55±0.54. The flow compensatory response (G) increased
from 1.17±0.80 to 1.89±2.17. These results suggest that the increased
vasoconstrictor response in the mesenteric bed may be ascribable to the
mechanical changes of the myogenic mechanism caused by sympathetic
denervation.19 Denervation supersensitivity to
circulating vasoconstrictor substances is a well-known occurrence after
denervation at all ages.20 In addition to denervation
supersensitivity, intrinsic stretch-dependent myogenic tone is also
promoted more after denervation. Mangiarua et al21 have
pointed out that it may be a change consequent to an altered cell
membrane that is associated with the development of sensitivity, such
as partial depolarization, impairment of the electrogenic
Na+-K+ pump, or the disposition of
Ca2+ ion. Bevan et al22 have also
speculated that lowering of the membrane potential of denervated
vascular smooth muscle might potentiate contractile effects and that
flow contraction is associated with calcium entry into vascular smooth
muscle cells.
Furthermore, Meininger et al11 have suggested that an autoregulatory vasoconstriction mediates a component of the increase in splanchnic vascular resistance and that the goal of the autoregulatory phenomenon is to minimize local disturbances in microvascular flow or pressure. However, by amplifying the effects of extrinsic vasoconstrictor mechanisms responsible for the initiation of the hypertension, autoregulation may potentiate the overall disturbance in blood pressure control, and as much as 74% to 64% of the increase in intestinal resistance for the fed and fasted rats is attributable to local pressure or flow-dependent autoregulatory mechanisms.11
Taken together, these data suggest that the mesenteric blood flow may be regulated by a stretch-dependent myogenic mechanism mediated by the cellular mechanism of vascular smooth muscle, whereas celiac blood flow is regulated preferentially by the sympathetic neural mechanism. Structural factors such as the wall-to-lumen ratio could not be responsible for the difference in mesenteric area in SHR23 24 because this interpretation does not explain the percent increase in mesenteric resistance in NCR after ganglionic blockade. It is unknown which of the three main tributaries of the celiac artery, ie, hepatic, gastric, or splenic, is responsible for each of the foregoing phenomena concerning the celiac blood flow. It would be important for the understanding of hypertension to determine which portion of the celiac bed causes sympathetic neural effects and to investigate the cellular mechanisms of vascular smooth muscle and endothelium underlying vascular smooth muscle contraction. However, hypertension in SHR appears to be partially mediated by variable components such as sympathetic nerve activity, elasticity of the blood vessel wall, lumen size, agonist sensitivity, smooth muscle proliferation, endothelial function, and small vessel number. It may be difficult to discuss the development and maintenance of hypertension by only a typical regulation mechanism.
In summary, the increase in mesenteric resistance with arterial pressure elevation after ganglionic blockade suggests that mesenteric blood flow is regulated by a stretch-dependent myogenic mechanism, whereas celiac blood flow is regulated preferentially by the sympathetic neural mechanism. It was speculated that the flow superregulation in the mesenteric bed in SHR is due to the enhanced myogenic response and contributes to the early stage of hypertension.
Received February 16, 1994; first decision March 9, 1994; accepted October 17, 1994.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
1. Judy WJ, Watanabe AM, Henry DP, Besch HR, Murphy WR, Hockel GM. Sympathetic nerve activity. Circ Res. 1976;38(suppl II):II-21-II-29.
2.
Ryuzaki M, Saruta T. Central and peripheral vasopressin
interact differently with sympathetic nervous system and
renin-angiotensin system in renal hypertensive rabbits.
Circ Res. 1993;72:1255-1265.
3.
Falcone JC, Granger HJ, Meininger GA. Enhanced myogenic
activation in skeletal muscle arterioles from spontaneously
hypertensive rats. Am J Physiol. 1993;265:H1847-H1855.
4.
Mulvany MJ. A reduced elastic modulus of vascular wall
components in hypertension? Hypertension. 1992;20:7-9.
5.
Johnson PC. Autoregulation of blood flow.
Circ Res. 1986;59:483-495.
6.
Segal SS. Cell-to-cell communication coordinates blood flow
control. Hypertension. 1994;23:1113-1120.
7. Okamoto K, Aoki K. Development of a strain of spontaneously hypertensive rats. Jpn Circ J. 1963;27:282-293. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
8. Iriuchijima J. Regional blood flow in conscious spontaneously hypertensive rats. Jpn J Physiol. 1983;33:41-50. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
9. Iriuchijima J. Mechanism of elevation of hindquarter vascular resistance in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Jpn J Physiol. 1985;35:45-56. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
10. Iida N, Iriuchijima J. Celiac vascular area in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Hypertens Res. 1993;16:265-268.
11.
Meininger GA, Routh LK, Granger HJ. Autoregulation and
vasoconstriction in the intestine during acute renal hypertension.
Hypertension. 1985;7:364-373.
12.
Takagi T, Naruse S, Shionoya S. Postprandial celiac and
superior mesenteric blood flows in conscious dogs. Am J
Physiol. 1988;255:G522-G528.
13. Iriuchijima J. Regional distribution of sympathetic vasoconstrictor tone in conscious spontaneously hypertensive rats. Jpn J Physiol. 1986;36:1101-1111. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
14. Iriuchijima J. Hemodynamics of hypertensive animals. In: Guyton AC, Hall JE, eds. Cardiovascular Physiology. Baltimore, Md: University Park Press; 1982;26:51-86.
15. Iriuchijima J, Teranishi Y, Eguchi C. Transposition response, a cardiovascular response to change of habitat in the rat. Jpn J Physiol. 1980;30:887-896. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
16. Teranishi Y, Iriuchijima J. Cardiac output in conscious one-clip, two-kidney renovascular hypertensive rats. Hiroshima J Med Sci. 1983;32:59-63. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
17. Norris CP, Barnes GE, Smith EE, Granger HJ. Autoregulation of superior mesenteric flow in fasted and fed dogs. Am J Physiol. 1979;237:H174-H177.
18. Iriuchijima J, Sakata S. Regional difference in sympathetic vasoconstrictor tone in conscious rats. Jpn J Physiol. 1985;35:1051-1063. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
19.
D'Angelo G, Meininger GA. Transduction mechanisms
involved in the regulation of myogenic activity.
Hypertension. 1994;23:1096-1105.
20. Fleming WW. The trophic influence of autonomic nerves on electrical properties of the cell membrane in smooth muscle. Life Sci. 1978;22:1223-1228. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
21. Mangiarua EI, Joyce EH, Bevan RD. Denervation increases myogenic tone in a resistance artery in the growing rabbit ear. Am J Physiol. 1986;250:H889-H891.
22.
Bevan RD, Clementson A, Joyce E, Bevan JA. Sympathetic
denervation of resistance arteries increases contraction and decreases
relaxation to flow. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:H490-H494.
23. Folkow B. Structural factors: the vascular wall. Hypertension. 1983;5(suppl III):III-58-III-62.
24.
Baumbach GL, Dobrin PB, Hart MN, Heistad DD. Mechanics of
cerebral arterioles in hypertensive rats. Circ
Res. 1988;62:56-64.
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  N. Iida Nitric oxide mediates sympathetic vasoconstriction at supraspinal, spinal, and synaptic levels Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, March 1, 1999; 276(3): H918 - H925. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 K. Matrougui, J. Maclouf, B. I. Levy, and D. Henrion Impaired Nitric Oxide– and Prostaglandin-Mediated Responses to Flow in Resistance Arteries of Hypertensive Rats Hypertension, October 1, 1997; 30(4): 942 - 947. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||