(Hypertension. 1995;25:1144-1152.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Low Urinary Sodium Is Associated With Greater Risk of Myocardial Infarction Among Treated Hypertensive Men
Presented in part at The American Society of Hypertension Seventh Meeting, New York, NY, May 6-10, 1992.
From the Department of Epidemiology and Social Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine (M.H.A., S.M., H.C.), Bronx, and the Cardiovascular Center, Department of Medicine, Cornell University Medical College (J.E.S., J.H.L.), New York, NY.
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Abstract |
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Abstract A sodium-reduced diet is frequently recommended for hypertensive individuals. To determine the relationship of sodium intake to subsequent cardiovascular disease, we assessed the experience of participants in a worksite-based cohort of hypertensive subjects. The 24-hour urinary excretion of sodium (UNaV), potassium, creatinine, and plasma renin activity was measured in 2937 mildly and moderately hypertensive subjects who were unmedicated for at least 3-4 weeks. Morbidity and mortality in these systematically treated subjects were ascertained. Men and women were stratified according to sex-specific quartiles of UNaV. Subjects in these strata were similar in race, cardiovascular status, and pretreatment and intreatment blood pressure. Subjects with lower UNaV were thinner, excreted less potassium, and had higher plasma renin activity. During an average 3.8 years of follow-up, a total of 55 myocardial infarctions occurred. Myocardial infarction and UNaV were inversely associated in the total population and in men but not in women, who sustained only nine events. In men, age- and race-adjusted myocardial infarction incidence in the lowest versus highest UNaV quartile was 11.5 versus 2.5 (relative risk, 4.3, 95% confidence interval, 1.7-10.6). No association was observed between non–cardiovascular disease mortality (n=11) and UNaV. There was a significant linear trend in proportions of myocardial infarction by UNaV quartile, with a break point after the lowest UNaV quartile. In the Cox multivariate analysis, log plasma renin activity, age, systolic pressure, and cholesterol as continuous variables as well as left ventricular hypertrophy and smoking had a direct association, and UNaV (P=.036) had an inverse, independent association with the incidence of myocardial infarction among these treated hypertensive men.
Key Words: sodium • renin • myocardial infarction • hypertension • blood pressure
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Introduction |
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Because sodium reduction can lower blood pressure (BP), at least in some hypertensive individuals,1 and because the reduction of BP is beneficial, it has been assumed that a diet low in sodium would also reduce subsequent cardiovascular disease (CVD). As a result, a sodium-reduced diet is widely recommended, particularly for hypertensive patients, as both a primary and an adjunctive treatment.2 3 4
Although much attention has been paid to the relation of sodium intake to fluid balance, blood volume, BP, renal function, plasma norepinephrine, plasma renin activity (PRA), cholesterol, and cardiovascular responsiveness,5 6 7 8 9 there is no information about the association of different levels of sodium intake with morbidity and mortality.
In a previous study,9 to determine the relation of the renin-sodium profile to subsequent cardiovascular and overall health outcomes in treated hypertensive patients, we measured PRA and 24-hour excretion of urinary sodium (UNaV) in patients after at least 3 to 4 weeks without medication and before initiation or recommencement of antihypertensive drug therapy and then related these values to cardiovascular disease experience. Those with a high renin-sodium profile were most likely to sustain a myocardial infarction (MI) and had the lowest UNaV.
In the present study, we examined the relation of UNaV alone to subsequent morbidity and mortality in 2937 treated hypertensive subjects. We now report that in the group as a whole and particularly in men, baseline UNaV was inversely related to subsequent MI, cardiovascular morbidity and mortality, and all-cause mortality but not to non-CVD mortality.
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Methods |
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Subjects
The study design and methods are identical to those applied previously in the same cohort.9 Subjects were sequential entrants to a previously described union-sponsored systematic hypertension treatment program who entered care between January 1981 and June 1990.10 11 Entry BP criteria were an untreated systolic BP greater than or equal to 160 mm Hg or a diastolic BP greater than or equal to 90 mm Hg or under treatment with antihypertensive medication at the time of screening. Of these 3067 subjects, 1773 were previously treated and discontinued antihypertensive therapy for 3 to 4 weeks before providing a 24-hour urine collection for sodium determination.12 Excluding 130 subjects whose follow-up was less than 2 months, the remaining 2937 (96%) formed the study cohort. Baseline information included demographic data, personal and parent or sibling (less than 60 years of age) history of MI and stroke, cigarette smoking habits, physical examination by a nurse and physician, electrocardiographic (ECG) findings (as recorded by program physicians), routine clinical chemistry, PRA, urine protein and electrolytes, and pretreatment BP. At each annual reexamination, an intervening history was obtained. All clinical data were obtained and treatment decisions made without knowledge of UNaV or PRA values. The study was carried out according to a protocol approved by the institutional review committee.
At first, treatment generally began with either hydrochlorothiazide or
propranolol.13 By the mid-1980s, 
- and/or
ß-adrenergic blockers, calcium channel blockers, and
angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors were also used.
BP Measurements
All BP readings were taken by a registered nurse using a
standard sphygmomanometer. An average of the second and third seated
readings in a set of three was the BP for the day. The "final BP"
was the average of all BP readings obtained during the 6 months before
the last visit or preceding a morbid or mortal event.
Laboratory Methods
Subjects were advised to maintain their usual diet, while
avoiding foods excessively high in salt, for the 4 or 5 days preceding
their 24-hour urine collection. This same advice was standard to this
program and therefore provided to all subjects throughout the course of
treatment. Subjects were given plastic containers and instructed to
discard the first void on the first day and include it on the second
day. Sodium and potassium were measured by a flame photometer
(Instrumentation Laboratories) until 1985 and thereafter by an
ion-selective electrode (Beckman Astra). The two methods produced
comparable results. For creatinine, the Jaffe rate calorimetry method
(Beckman Astra) was used.
PRA was measured by an enzyme kinetic assay followed by radioimmunoassay of angiotensin I.14 Results are expressed as nanograms angiotensin I per liter per second. Blood samples were processed at room temperature at the worksite. Plasma was then frozen. PRA was later measured after rapid thawing of plasma to room temperature in samples that were thawed for the first time. In this way, inadvertent cryoactivation of plasma prorenin was avoided.
Assessment of Adequacy of Urine Collection
Observed creatinine clearance, which depends on urine
collection, was compared with the estimated creatinine clearance,
computed by applying the Cockcroft and Gault formula.15
The calculation of this formula is based on serum creatinine, age, and
body weight. A previous comparison of this calculation with creatinine
clearance actually measured in a metabolic ward revealed that 94% of
the values estimated by this formula fell within ±35% of observed
creatinine clearance.16 Therefore, as a means to validate
the findings in the entire group, we applied this formula to isolate a
subgroup whose urine collection met arbitrary standards.
Morbidity and Mortality
Morbid and mortal events were assessed through review of
hospital charts and death certificates by blinded (without access to
patient clinic charts) physicians. In cases without such confirmation,
physicians outside the program, family members, friends, or union
records were consulted.
Morbid and mortal events were classified according to the International Classification of Disease, Ninth Revision, Clinical Modification. CVD events included MI (code 410) and cerebrovascular disease (codes 430 to 434 and 436 to 438, henceforth referred to as strokes). All deaths were categorized as either CVD or non-CVD. For subjects with more than one event during follow-up, only the first CVD since initiation of therapy was included in the present analysis. Data were recorded on computer-compatible forms and processed for computer storage and analysis.
During 3.5 years of median follow-up (range, 0.2 to 9.5 years), 282 events (221 morbid and 61 mortal) occurred. Of these, there were 117 CVD events (55 MI, 23 stroke, 8 coronary [angioplasty/surgery] revascularization, 9 unstable angina, 6 congestive heart failure, and 16 other cardiovascular deaths) and 165 non-CVD events. Hospital records, death certificate, or both confirmed 46 of 55 (84%) MIs, 15 of 23 (65%) strokes, and 15 of 16 (94%) other CVD deaths.
Statistical Analysis
Baseline characteristics were assessed according to sex-
specific quartiles of 24-hour UNaV by univariate
analysis. Median values were computed for those with skewed
distributions. Cause-specific event rates (per 1000 person-years) were
computed by sex-specific quartile of UNaV level for the
total population, and MI rates were adjusted for age and race
calculated separately for men and women for each sodium stratum.
Relative risk (RR) and 95% confidence interval (CI) between the lowest
and the other sodium groups determined the relationship of
UNaV and the incidence of CVD. Similar analyses were done
after the study population had been stratified by demographic
characteristics, selected cardiovascular risk factors, and clinical
chemistry measures at entry. Further analysis included testing for
a linear trend in proportions of MI incidence by quartile of
UNaV.17 The Cox proportional hazards
regression model18 19 was used to determine the effect of
UNaV on MI and CVD while simultaneously controlling for
potential confounders and other covariates. Also, Cox models with and
without interaction were used and compared by estimating the difference
in their log likelihood (L1 and L2) and
testing the significance of 2(L2-L1)
after a 
2 distribution with 1 df. To
further validate these results, analyses were also performed with data
on the 2016 (69%) study subjects who met Cockcroft and Gault criteria
for adequacy of 24-hour urine collection.15 All clinical
chemistry measures are reported in SI (Système International)
units, using conversion factors. All statistical analyses were
performed with SPSS and BMDP software.
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Results |
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Subject Characteristics
Men (N=1900) and women (N=1037) differed in most baseline characteristics, including UNaV values as shown in Table 1. Median UNaV was 115 mmol/d overall, 126 for men and 97 for women. As UNaV levels for men and women were significantly different, sex-specific quartiles were determined. Among men and women (Tables 2 and 3), all four quartiles contained similar proportions of subjects who were white, smoked, and had prior CVD, positive immediate family history of CVD, prior treatment, and left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) by ECG. Body weight, urine volume, and urinary potassium were positively related to UNaV, whereas age was inversely related to UNaV for both sexes. During the study, body weight increased similarly in each of the four groups, by 2 to 3 lb for men and 3 to 5 lb for women (initial ranges: men, 175 to 193 lb; women, 153 to 173 lb; final ranges: men, 177 to 195 lb; women, 157 to 178 lb). Serum cholesterol was inversely related to UNaV in women. Blood urea nitrogen in men was similar in the first three quartiles and significantly (P<.005) higher in the highest quartile. Median PRA was inversely related to UNaV in men and women.
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Hemoglobin, hematocrit, and serum potassium were similar across sodium groups and did not change during follow-up. Proportions of smokers and of subjects with LVH by ECG as well as mean change in cholesterol levels were not significantly different between the sodium quartiles at the end of follow-up. Initial mean systolic BP was similar in sodium quartiles; in the highest sodium group, mean diastolic BP values were 1 and 2 mm Hg higher than in the lowest sodium group in men (99 versus 98 mm Hg) and women (95 versus 93 mm Hg), respectively. Treatment brought nearly 80% of all subjects to the normal BP range (mean: 139.4/87.6 mm Hg) and eliminated interquartile differences except in men whose mean systolic BP in the lowest sodium quartile (139 mm Hg) was significantly higher (P<.05) than that in the highest (137 mm Hg).
UNaV and Incidence of MI, Stroke, and CVD
The median length of follow-up of subjects in all four sodium
strata was similar (3.43, 3.76, 3.34, and 3.45 years). Of the 117 CVD
events in both sexes, 96 (82%) occurred in men (Table 4). Of these 96, 46 (48%) were MIs and 17 (18%) were
strokes. In Table 4, unadjusted overall incidence rates of MI per 1000
person-years were inversely related to UNaV for the total
population, ranging from 8.1 (lowest quartile) to 2.9 (highest
quartile) with an RR of 2.8 (95% CI=1.3-6.1). This was not true for
stroke (RR=1.2, 95% CI=0.3-4.0), non-CVD morbidity (RR=1.2, 95%
CI=0.8-1.8), or non-CVD deaths (RR=0.8, 95% CI=0.2-3.0). A similar but
stronger relationship of MI and UNaV was observed for men,
with an RR of 5.2 (95% CI=2.0-13.5) for the lowest versus highest
quartile. The observed MI rates of women (nine events) were in the
opposite direction, with no statistical significance between quartiles
and a power of 13%.
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In view of these differences and the paucity of events in women, further analysis focused on men. For men, in the middle two UNaV quartiles, which span the range of usual sodium intake (89 to 174 mmol/24 h), the incidences of MI, stroke, and total CVD were indistinguishable. The lowest quartile of UNaV differed significantly in MI, CVD, and all-cause mortality from all others, as well as from the two middle groups. By contrast, the highest sodium quartile differed in MI or CVD from the lowest but not from the two middle quartiles. These results suggest a break point at the lowest sodium level.
In Table 5, age- and race-adjusted MI rates among men reflected a clustering of events in the lowest UNaV quartile that differed significantly from the referent (fourth) quartile as well as the upper three quartiles combined.
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Stratified analysis revealed that even after adjustment for individual risk factors such as age, race, and LVH, the relationship of UNaV to MI generally persisted but varied according to particular demographic or clinical characteristics (Fig 1). The relationship of UNaV to MI expressed as the RR of the lowest quartile to the upper three combined (referent) was stronger in younger (4.5, P=.001) than older (1.2, P=.665) subjects. There were very few MIs in blacks, who in this population had an average UNaV similar to that of whites. However, 5 of the 7 (71%) events that occurred in blacks were in the lowest sodium group compared with 13 of 28 (46%) in whites, although these distributions, reflecting small numbers, did not differ significantly. In the lowest UNaV group, MI rate was four times higher among subjects with LVH initially than among those without LVH (35.6 versus 9.4 per 1000 person-years). Of note was the lack of evidence of protection against MI associated with increased urinary potassium. Moreover, the lowest sodium-to-potassium ratio was associated with more MIs than were those with the highest ratios.
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Subjects with a higher PRA were more likely to experience an event than those with lower levels. When subjects were divided according to tertile of PRA to represent high, normal, and low, those with UNaV lower than the median had both higher PRA and a higher rate of MI within each PRA tertile. The inverse relationship of UNaV to MI persisted regardless of urine volume.
Test for Linear Trend in the UNaV-MI Relationship
Further analysis included fitting a linear regression between
quartiles of UNaV and proportions of MI events in each
sodium stratum for men and testing for a linear trend (Fig 2). The slope (b=-0.0112) was roughly 3.5 times its
standard error of 0.0031, showing that the linear trend was significant
at P
.01. Deviations from linearity were not significant
(2=2.097, P>.05 at 2 df).
The best break point for the relationship of UNaV to MI was
after the first sodium quartile, based on the proportions in quartile I
compared with those in II through IV (2=10.6,
P=.001) and among II within IV
(2=3.02, P=.22).
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indicates observed; +, estimated.
Validation of Event Rates in Defined Subgroups of Study
Subjects
Since estimation of sodium intake depended on a single 24-hour
urine collection, various attempts were made to establish its accuracy.
Assessment of only those 1298 men whose estimated urinary creatinine
clearance values by the method of Cockcroft and Gault15
were within 35% of the measured values yielded a result similar to
that of the whole group. An inverse relationship between MI and
UNaV (I: 11.7, II: 6.1, III: 8.4, and IV: 1.8/1000
person-years; I versus IV: RR=6.5, 95% CI=1.8-23.3) was observed. It
should be noted that application of the Cockcroft and Gault formula
resulted in the removal of subjects from all four UNaV
quartiles (35%, 34%, 30%, and 28% from I through IV,
respectively).
Data on a different subgroup (n=1695) of subjects with a 24-hour UNaV of 35 to 240 mmol produced a similar inverse sodium-to-MI association.
Drug Use
Physicians were unaware of UNaV levels at the time of
first prescription. The two principal initial drugs, diuretics and
ß-blockers, were prescribed for 42% and 24% of all subjects,
respectively. ACE inhibitors, calcium channel blockers, and
-blockers were also prescribed as first-line drugs in recent years.
Initial and final drug use were similar within each UNaV
stratum. Overall, MI and CVD events were also similar by drug use.
Finally, when diuretic use was included in multivariate analyses, it
did not remain in the model nor did it alter the significant
associations of other factors identified in the original
analysis.
Multivariate Analyses
The risk of MI was examined in men by multivariate analysis,
with MI as the dependent variable and UNaV along with other
factors known to influence the incidence of MI as the independent
variables. UNaV, age, systolic BP, log PRA, urinary
potassium, and cholesterol as continuous variables, along with smoking
status and LVH as categorical variables, were each found to be
independently associated with the incidence of MI in the best-fitting
model (Table 6). Of these associations, a negative
direction was observed for UNaV only. Race, diastolic BP,
body weight, fasting blood sugar, urine volume, serum creatinine,
creatinine clearance, prior treatment status, and history of CVD did
not remain in the model. The exclusion of diastolic BP from the model
may be due to the collinearity of the two BP measures. In an alternate
model in which PRA was not included, UNaV was more
significantly associated with MI than when log PRA was included in the
model as in Table 6 (P=.026 vs .036). Because of the known
relationship of PRA and UNaV, the product of
UNaV and log PRA as an interaction term was also introduced
in another model. Although associated with MI, its presence did not
significantly improve the likelihood of the model without it (-270.08
versus -269.95). Similar results were observed in an analysis
using total CVD in place of MI as the outcome variable.
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Discussion |
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The principal finding of this prospective cohort study is that UNaV was inversely associated with MI and total CVD in treated hypertensive subjects. Perhaps as important was the finding that subjects consuming the highest amount of sodium did not experience more MI events than did those consuming the model sodium diet. This relationship existed whether UNaV was treated as a categorical or continuous variable and was independent of preexisting disease or differences in conventional risk characteristics, PRA, and renal function. Although this association was demonstrable in men and in the population as a whole, an inverse tendency was observed among women. This was not significant and was based on a small number of events (nine), hence low power (13%), and may have been due to chance. However, it may also represent a real difference. Indeed, differences in the impact of CVD risk factors such as fasting blood glucose and serum cholesterol between men and women have been noted elsewhere.20 21 22
We could find no previous reports relating cardiovascular morbidity or all-cause mortality to UNaV. Short-term experimental studies that relate sodium intake to changes in BP have not been designed to address the ultimate health effect.23 Epidemiological studies have revealed that in communities characterized by very low sodium diets, life spans tend to be short.24 25 26 Concern about low sodium diets was first raised by Meneely et al27 and Dahl and Love,28 who linked decreased salt intake to growth failure and increased mortality in rats. By contrast, a high sodium diet increased stroke but not MI among rats.29
In an observational study, there must be a concern for undetected confounding, because it is impossible to entirely exclude the prospect that the observed associations are the result of such confounding. Presumably, analysis of other data will either confirm or refute the present findings. A strength of this particular study is that systematic determination of known relevant factors in all subjects was performed at entry. Indeed, this investigation is another in a series of studies with the common purpose of identifying, in hypertensive individuals, entry characteristics that are associated with subsequent cardiovascular events.9 30 31 32 33 34 The study cohort was stable and had long-term systematic treatment with virtually complete end point ascertainment.
One possible explanation for these findings is that sicker subjects, or those with a poor outlook based on history, chose to eat less sodium. Data are available to examine this possibility. In fact, those subjects with preexisting disease (prior CVD, renal insufficiency, abnormal ECG, elevated creatinine, and LVH) did not concentrate in the lowest UNaV group, nor did that quartile include more subjects who had a family history of premature CVD or had themselves received previous antihypertensive treatment. Although the risk of heart attack was indeed greatest among subjects with LVH, the prevalence of LVH was no greater in low than in high sodium subjects, and the association of low UNaV and MI persisted whether this marker of disease severity was present or absent. A relationship between UNaV and LVH measured by echocardiography has been previously reported,4 35 but correlations between LVH determinations by ECG and echocardiography are poor.36 The absence of difference in LVH between sodium quartiles in the present study may reflect the lack of sensitivity of ECG as a measure of LVH. Weight change and BP response during the study were similar in the four groups. Non-CVD mortality was similar across the quartiles. Finally, multivariate analysis confirmed that the relationship of UNaV to MI was independent of these potentially confounding factors.
It is also possible that those subjects destined to sustain an MI were excessively responsive to widespread public messages to limit sodium intake. This unlikely outcome would be in sharp contrast to the usual case, in which compliant individuals tend to have the best outcomes.37 Again, no evidence exists to suggest that these subjects were at higher risk based on personal status or family history.
The association observed here depends on the measure of sodium in a single baseline 24-hour urine collection. The initial advice to avoid high sodium foods before urine collection may have influenced diet. Neither subjects nor their nurses or doctors were apprised of urine sodium findings. Throughout the study, all subjects were advised to maintain that same diet. A major alteration in diet was neither sought nor desired. It is reassuring to note that the mean UNaV of the study subjects (126 mmol/24 h) was in the middle of the range (104 to 151 mmol/24 h) of US participants in INTERSALT, an epidemiological study in which a single 24-hour urine sodium measurement was linked to BP.38
In the present study, as was the case when the relation of BP to stroke and MI or the relation of potassium intake to stroke was first examined, the relation of UNaV to MI has been explored in a cohort study. A single baseline measure of the item of interest was made and linked to outcomes occurring many years later. In these circumstances, it is not possible to know the stability of the measure. However, some data support the contention that dietary intake, including electrolytes, tends to remain constant in middle-aged people over many years.39 Moreover, in the present study, a contemporaneous normotensive control group drawn from the same population and receiving the same dietary counsel delivered a remarkably consistent UNaV. In fact, annual 24-hour urine specimens of these normotensive subjects revealed a change (fall) in mean UNaV of about 1 mmol/y over a 10-year period.40
Because it has been reported previously that increased potassium intake measured once at baseline was associated with a protection against stroke that persisted over an entire 8-year follow-up period,41 we explored the role of potassium in this cohort. The earlier study, based on a single 24-hour dietary recall at baseline, did not report sodium intake or MI incidence. Although stroke incidence was too low to reliably test for potassium effect in the present study, a trend of reduced stroke with increasing potassium excretion was observed.
Since urine collections are notoriously inaccurate, unbiased subsets of individuals whose urinary excretion met some arbitrary objective criteria for accuracy were identified for further analysis.42 One approach was to select subjects whose urine volume or UNaV were within specific ranges. In these subgroups, similar to the entire group in all relevant characteristics, the UNaV-to-MI relationship held. More convincing, we believe, was the application of the formula developed by Cockcroft and Gault, and later validated empirically, to test for completeness of collection.15 16 Creatinine clearance was estimated from serum creatinine, age, and weight. When only subjects whose predicted urinary creatinine clearance was within 35% of that measured were assessed, the UNaV-to-MI relationship was still demonstrable. In short, no strategy of subject inclusion or exclusion altered the strong association between UNaV and MI.
It should also be noted that inaccuracy in urine collection was not simply caused by a tendency for subjects to deliver an incomplete collection. Many specimens were excluded because of excessive collection. More significantly, in terms of the reliability of the exposure data, the percent excluded in each UNaV quartile was roughly similar and not concentrated in the lowest quartile.
Finally, random variation in eating patterns almost certainly generated specimens not reflective of the subject's usual pattern. The inevitable nondirectional misclassification of subjects in terms of their usual intake produces what has been described as regression dilution bias.43 The tendency of this bias would be to blunt any relationship of exposure to outcome.44 Thus, the magnitude of the association between UNaV and MI found here most likely underestimated the true relationship.
This study was not designed to explain how a low sodium diet might influence MI incidence. Perhaps a diet low in sodium was also low in other nutrients. Calcium and iron, as well as potassium and virtually every other measured nutrient, correlate well with sodium intake and are therefore liable to be reduced in people on low sodium diets.45 It is also possible that a low sodium intake, particularly in treated hypertensive individuals, decreased blood volume, increased blood viscosity, and in the face of some atherosclerosis, reduced coronary blood flow.46 47
The hypothesis that stimulated this analysis was based on the previously reported association of PRA and MI in hypertensive patients.9 PRA is inversely related to sodium intake. We have here extended previous observations to show that PRA, as a continuous variable, is directly related to MI in hypertensive subjects. At the same time UNaV, as a continuous variable, is inversely related to MI. When PRA was excluded from the Cox multiple regression model, the already significant sodium-to-MI link became substantially stronger. With the inclusion of PRA, both remained in the model, reflecting their independent association with MI. Taken together, these data suggest that much but not all of the association between reduced sodium intake and increased MI may be mediated through effects on the renin-angiotensin system.
Inferences from this study must be limited by its circumstances. Participants were healthy and successfully treated hypertensive subjects in whom any potential hypotensive effect of a low sodium intake was masked by more potent drug therapy. It is certainly possible that in untreated subjects, a low sodium diet might, by lowering BP, be beneficial. In this regard, it should be noted that Meade et al48 failed to detect an association between PRA and MI or sudden death from coronary causes among mostly normotensive men. This further cautions against extrapolation of the findings in these treated hypertensive subjects to normotensive individuals.
To our knowledge, this is the first clinical study directly linking UNaV to subsequent morbidity and mortality. These findings conflict with widely held popular belief. However, they are consistent with the biologically plausible hypothesis that, because sodium and renin are inversely related, a low sodium diet would be associated with increased MI. Certainly, these results do not justify any therapeutic recommendations. No single observational study can establish causality. The next step must be to examine other appropriate data.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported in part by Specialized Center of Research (SCOR) grant HL-18323 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, US Public Health Service.
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Footnotes |
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Reprint requests to Dr Michael H. Alderman, Department of Epidemiology and Social Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Ave, Room 1311 Belfer, Bronx, NY 10461.
Received July 7, 1994; first decision August 9, 1994; accepted January 19, 1995.
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