(Hypertension. 1995;26:595-601.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Investigation of the Phenylethanolamine N-Methyltransferase Gene as a Candidate Gene for Hypertension
From the Falk Cardiovascular Research Center, Stanford (Calif) University School of Medicine (G.K., J.E.K., M.H., V.J.D.); Cardiovascular Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital–East, Charlestown (G.K., H.J.J.); Departement de Biologie Moleculaire, Université Libre de Bruxelles (Belgium) (C.S.); and Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass (M.R.H.).
Correspondence to Victor J. Dzau, Falk Cardiovascular Research Center, Stanford University School of Medicine, 300 Pasteur Dr, Stanford, CA 94305-5246.
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Abstract |
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Abstract Genetic mapping studies have located a gene, Bp1, that accounts for approximately 30% of the genetic variation in the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rat (SHRSP) to a region on chromosome 10 containing the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene. In humans, the gene encoding phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) was localized near the angiotensin-converting enzyme gene on human chromosome 17. Since most of human chromosome 17 is known to be homologous to rat chromosome 10 and PNMT is known to play a role in blood pressure homeostasis, we reasoned (1) that the rat gene encoding PNMT (Pnmt) may reside on chromosome 10 within the confidence interval containing Bp1 and (2) that Pnmt is a good candidate gene for Bp1. With the use of a somatic cell hybrid panel and genetic mapping techniques, Pnmt mapped within the confidence interval that contains Bp1. To examine further this possibility of Pnmt as a candidate for Bp1, we cloned and characterized Pnmts of the original parental strains, the Wistar-Kyoto rat and SHRSP from the Heidelberg colony. We did not identify any sequence differences between the Wistar-Kyoto rats and SHRSP in the primary structure, in 1077 bp of the 5'-flanking region, or in the 256-bp 3'-end region, making Pnmt an unlikely gene for the genetic basis of salt-loaded hypertension.
Key Words: phenethanolamine N-methyltransferase • rats, inbred strains • DNA • cloning, molecular
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The terminal enzyme in the production of epinephrine that catalyzes the transmethylation of norepinephrine is PNMT (EC 2.1.1.28; S-adenosyl-L-methionine:phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase).1 2 This enzyme is found predominantly in the chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla and certain hypothalamic and brain stem neurons.3 4 5 Specifically, neurons containing PNMT are found in the area of the rostral ventrolateral medulla that plays a critical role in blood pressure homeostasis.6 Significant increases in PNMT activity and epinephrine content have been reported in various hypertensive animal models7 8 9 10 11 as well as in the brain stem of the SHR and SHRSP compared with the normotensive WKY.8 12 13 14 Inhibitors of PNMT reduce PNMT activity in the brain stem and lower blood pressure in the SHR and deoxycorticosterone acetate–salt models of hypertension,8 15 16 17 suggesting that PNMT activity might be involved in the development and maintenance of hypertension.
The gene encoding human PNMT (PNMT) has been cloned, characterized,18 19 and initially assigned to human chromosome 17 with the use of mouse/human somatic cell hybrids.20 With the use of two- and three-generation reference pedigrees, the human PNMT gene was mapped to human chromosome 17q21-q22,21 which also contains the ACE gene. Since the rat ACE gene (Ace) is located within the confidence interval containing Bp1,22 23 we reasoned that the rat PNMT gene (Pnmt) also may be within the Bp1 interval and another potential candidate gene for the increase in blood pressure after a salt load. To fulfill this hypothesis, Pnmt must be within the Bp1 interval, and sequence differences in the coding or regulatory regions must exist between Pnmt of the SHRSP and WKY.
Here we report the genetic mapping of Pnmt and present the complete Pnmt (only the partial cDNA has been reported).24 25 We also investigate the possibility of Pnmt being Bp1. Although we cannot formally rule out Pnmt as Bp1, the lack of a single base pair difference in the coding region, 1077 bp of the 5'-flanking region or 256 bp of the 3'-flanking region, makes this gene a very unlikely candidate.
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Methods |
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Animals
SHRSP and WKY used for this study were from colonies formerly maintained at the University of Heidelberg, Germany (currently maintained at the MDC-Berlin-Buch). LEW and F344 used were from Harlan Sprague Dawley (Indianapolis, Ind).
Probe Preparation
The probes for this study were prepared by PCR amplification of
genomic DNA of the WKY. Primers (forward primer,
5'-GTGAGGTGTCTGGACAGGTC-3'; reverse primer, 5'-AAGGAGTTAGGGAGGCAAAT-3')
were designed based on the partial cDNA sequence for rat
PNMT24 and yielded a 0.85-kbp fragment (Fig 1). Partial sequencing of this fragment
was performed and compared with the rat cDNA sequence with the use of
an ABI 373A DNA sequencer (Applied Biosystems), confirming that the
amplified fragment contained the identical sequence of the cDNA (data
not shown). This probe was labeled with [
-32P]dCTP
(3000 Ci/mmol, DuPont–New England Nuclear) by a random primer
labeling kit (Life Technologies, Inc) and purified with a NICK column
(Pharmacia LKB Biotechnology).
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) of Pnmt. The black bar
indicates the probe amplified by PCR. B indicates BamHI; E,
EcoRI; Hc, HincII; Hd, HindIII; S,
Sal I; and X, XhoI.
Chromosomal Assignment of Pnmt
The chromosomal assignment of Pnmt was performed by
PCR amplification of a mouse/rat somatic cell hybrid panel as
previously described.22 Primers described above were used
for this experiment. Primers of mouse D-100 (D8 MIT16-F&R, Research
Genetics) were used for internal control of PCR amplification.
Isolation of Simple Sequence Repeat Near
Pnmt
Two P1 clones were isolated (Genome Systems Inc) with the use of
PCR primers flanking Pnmt (forward primer,
5'-TTGCCCATTGATGTGCAC-3'; reverse primer, 5'-AGAAGGAGATGACCCCCG-3').
DNA of these P1 clones was digested with the restriction enzyme
Alu I, HaeIII, or Rsa I (New England
Biolabs). These digested DNA fragments were pooled and ligated to
linkers (annealed with primer 1, 5'-CTGAGCGGAATTCGTGAGACC-3'; and
primer 2,
5'-phosphorylated-GGTCTCACGAATTCCGCTCAGTT-3'). After
ligation of this linker, PCR was performed with a dU-containing primer
(5'-CUACUACUACUACTGAGCGGAATTCGTGAGAC-3') with
the following protocol: six cycles of 94°C for 45 seconds, 60°C for
45 seconds, and 72°C for 75 seconds. These PCR products were
cloned with the use of the CLONEAMP pAMP10 System (Life Technologies,
Inc). Clones were screened for SSRs by colony
hybridization26 with the use of Colony/Plaque Screen
(DuPont–New England Nuclear), with
oligonucleotide (CA)15 end labeled with
[
-32P]ATP (6000 Ci/mmol, DuPont–New England
Nuclear). Hybridization was carried out at 55°C in Church's
hybridization solution.27 Filters were washed at 55°C in
5x SSC (1x SSC is 150 mmol/L NaCl and 15 mmol/L sodium citrate) and
0.1% SDS, followed by autoradiography at
-80°C with an intensifying screen. Positive clones were
sequenced with an ABI 373A DNA sequencer. PCR primers flanking the
repeat were designed with the computer program PRIMER (S.E.
Lincoln et al, unpublished results, 1991).
Mapping of the Genetic Marker for Pnmt
The experimental procedure in this section was previously
described in detail.28 The PCR primers for Pnmt
were characterized (allele sizes determined) for 12 different
inbred rat strains. Since this genetic marker was not informative in
the SHRSPxWKY intercross, the gene was mapped with an LEWxF344
intercross. This cross was genotyped with other genetic markers
on rat chromosome 10, D10Mit1, D10Mgh5, D10Mgh7, D10Mgh8,
and BAND3A.28 After genotyping, linkage
analysis was performed with the MAPMAKER computer
package29 with the use of the same criteria as previously
described.28
Preparation and Screening of Genomic DNA Libraries
Genomic DNA was isolated as described26 from
the spleens of WKY and SHRSP (spleens were kindly provided by Dr Detlev
Ganten). Rat genomic libraries (prepared by Clontech Laboratories,
Inc), which used partial Mbo I digests of genomic DNA cloned
into the BamHI site of EMBL-3 (WKY genomic DNA library;
independent plaques: 1.6x106; SHRSP genomic DNA
library; independent plaques: 2.4x106). The genomic
libraries were plated on Escherichia coli strain NM538 and
screened by plaque hybridization30 with the use of
Colony/Plaque Screen or Magna nylon membrane (Micron Separations Inc).
Hybridization was carried out at 42°C in 50% formamide, 5x SSPE
(1x SSPE is 150 mmol/L NaCl, 10 mmol/L
NaH2PO4, and 1 mmol/L EDTA), 5x
Denhardt's solution, 0.1% SDS, and 100 µg/mL denatured salmon sperm
DNA with radiolabeled probe as described above. Filters were washed at
68°C in 0.1x SSC and 0.1% SDS for Colony/Plaque Screen or 0.2x SSC
and 0.1% SDS for Magna nylon membrane. Positive clones, localized
after autoradiography at -70°C with an
intensifying screen, were isolated by repeated phage purification.
Phage DNA was purified by the standard method26 with minor
modification.
DNA Sequencing
Double-stranded DNA, prepared with Qiagen columns, was
sequenced by the dideoxy chain termination method.31
Clones containing genomic DNA were sequenced in both directions with
the T7 and T3 primers (Stratagene) or with internal primers and
Sequenase (United States Biochemical).
Nomenclature
Rat strains, genes, and genetic markers were named in accordance
with the rat nomenclature committee.28 32
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Results |
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Mapping of Pnmt
Pnmt was initially assigned to chromosome 10 with the use of a somatic cell hybrid panel (17 mouse/rat cell hybrids). The amplification pattern was concordant with chromosome 10 (Table 1). An internal control (mouse D-100) assured us that lack of an amplification product was not the result of a technical error in a specific lane.
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Two P1 clones, which were confirmed to contain Pnmt by Southern blotting (data not shown), were screened to isolate (CA)n repeats. One clone containing a (CA)n repeat was identified and sequenced, and primers flanking the repeat were designed (forward primer, 5'-TCAAGTGTGCAGTGCCGT-3'; reverse primer, 5'-GCCC- GAGAACGTGTTTCTTA-3'). Allele sizes for this marker were determined for 12 rat strains (Table 2).
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To map the marker for Pnmt, we used the progeny of an LEWxF344 intercross (the marker was not informative for the SHRSPxWKY cross). Fig 2 shows the genetic linkage map for the region containing Bp1 of rat chromosome 10 and illustrates that the marker for Pnmt (D10Mgh15) is within the interval containing Bp1.
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Nucleotide Sequence of Pnmts
The structure of both Pnmts (SHRSP and WKY) is shown in
Fig 1. The entire exon regions, the 1077-bp 5'-flanking
region, the 256-bp 3'-end region, and the intron-exon boundaries of
both genes were sequenced (Figs 3 and 4).
Intron sizes were determined by restriction mapping and/or sequencing
(Table 3). Pnmt is similar to the human and
bovine homologues, having three exons interrupted by two
introns,18 19 33 and spans approximately 2 kbp of DNA (Fig 1). All exon-intron junction sequences follow the
GT/AG rule.34 The complete primary structure of the rat
PNMT is deduced from exon sequences (Fig 3). The
putative rat PNMT is composed of 285 amino acid residues, with an
estimated molecular weight of 31.6 kD.
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There were no nucleotide differences in the regions sequenced between WKY and SHRSP. The 1077-bp 5'-flanking region of Pnmt contains consensus sequences for several known regulatory elements. These include the TATA box sequence,34 three potential Sp1 binding sites,35 and three homologous sequences to the glucocorticoid responsive element36 (Fig 4A), but no CAAT box sequence37 is found. The 256-bp 3'-end region contains the polyadenylation signal38 following a TGA translational stop codon (Fig 4B).
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Discussion |
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Epidemiological and genetic studies have suggested that hypertension is a polygenic, heterogeneous disease. However, the specific genes causing hypertension are still unknown.39 40 41 To gain insight into human hypertension, researchers have studied rat models of genetic hypertension extensively. Recently, we and others performed genetic mapping studies on a cross of SHRSP and WKY22 23 and discovered a gene on rat chromosome 10 that we designated Bp1. This gene cosegregates with blood pressure after a salt load and accounts for nearly 30% of genetic variance.22 23
Ace mapped within the interval containing Bp1 and therefore was the first candidate gene. However, genetic mapping cannot prove the role for a candidate gene. To date, molecular biological studies have been unable to prove or refute Ace as Bp1. More recently, we (M.R.H.) genetically mapped the human PNMT gene to human chromosome 17q21-q22,21 which also contains the human ACE gene (ACE). Since PNMT seems to play a significant role in blood pressure homeostasis6 and previous physiological studies have demonstrated differences in PNMT activity and epinephrine content in the brain stems of SHR and SHRSP versus WKY,8 12 13 14 we hypothesize that Pnmt may be a candidate gene for Bp1. However, it is unclear whether the PNMT activity difference is primary or secondary. To examine this hypothesis, we set out to map Pnmt and clone it and compare its sequence between the WKY and SHRSP genes.
The somatic cell hybrid panel analysis demonstrated that the
chromosomal location of Pnmt is chromosome 10, which is
homologous to human chromosome 17. Our initial mapping attempts
consisted of searching for restriction fragment length
polymorphisms with 16 restriction enzymes (Alu I,
BamHI, Bfa I, Bgl II, Dpn
II, EcoRI, Hae III, HindIII,
Kpn I, Msp I, Pst I, Pvu
II, Rsa I, -Taq I, Xba I,
Xho I) and single-strand conformational
polymorphisms (data not shown) that would yield a polymorphism
between SHRSP and WKY. Neither strategy yielded a polymorphism, so
we searched for SSRs in genomic 
-clones containing Pnmt;
however, none were identified. Subsequently, a (CA)n repeat for the
Pnmt was identified in a P1 clone, which generally carries a
75- to 100-kbp insert.42 As the genetic distance between
Pnmt and this (CA)n repeat is less than 0.1 cM, it could be
used as a genetic marker for Pnmt. Unfortunately, this
SSR was not polymorphic between SHRSP and WKY. Pnmt was
finally mapped to within the interval containing Bp1 with
the use of an LEWxF344 intercross.
The mapping data suggested that Pnmt was a candidate gene for Bp1; however, our inability to identify a polymorphism between the SHRSP and WKY implied that the genes may not be different. We next cloned it from the SHRSP and WKY to see whether we could identify any sequence variation.
Screening of genomic DNA libraries of WKY and SHRSP yielded four clones from the WKY and two from the SHRSP. The structure of the gene was determined by restriction mapping and sequencing of these clones. As shown in Fig 1, Pnmt spans approximately 2 kbp of DNA, containing three exons and two introns. The organization of the rat gene is similar to those of the human and bovine genes.18 19 33 Rat PNMT is composed of 285 amino acid residues as deduced from the nucleotide sequence of entire exon regions. The estimated molecular weight is 31.6 kD. The primary structure of rat PNMT is similar to those of human PNMT (282 amino acid residues, 30.9 kD)20 and bovine PNMT (284 amino acid residues, 31.1 kD).43 Rat PNMT is 80% to 90% homologous to these other species. We also sequenced and characterized the regulatory regions of Pnmt, ie, 1077 bp of the 5'-flanking region and 256 bp of the 3'-end region (Fig 4). There are consensus sequences for several known regulatory elements, such as the TATA box, Sp1 binding site, glucocorticoid responsive element, and polyadenylation signal. The structure of the regulatory region of the rat gene is similar to those of human18 19 and bovine33 genes.
We compared Pnmt between WKY and SHRSP. No differences were found for the entire coding region, the 5'-flanking region, and the 3'-end region. Introns 1 and 2 were also sequenced, and again there were no differences; however, a 200-bp region of intron 1 could not be sequenced. PCR primers flanking the region of intron 1 that could not be sequenced were designed and amplified; however, regular polyacrylamide gel analysis and single-strand conformational polymorphism analysis failed to identify polymorphisms.
If there is no difference between the genes, how do we account for the expression differences reported between the SHRSP and WKY? One possibility is that the expression differences observed are a secondary consequence of the hypertension in the SHRSP. Another possibility that plagues the rat community is the variation among strains with the same name. We favor the former because we obtained the SHRSP and WKY from the same group which produced the original cross that showed cosegregation of blood pressure with the interval that contains Pnmt.
Given our inability to detect any difference at the restriction mapping level down to the sequence of Pnmt between the SHRSP and WKY, we believe it is unlikely that Pnmt itself contributes to the genetic basis of salt-loaded hypertension. However, we cannot exclude the possibilities that differences exist in the region that we did not analyze in this report or that Bp1 encodes a trans-acting factor regulating Pnmt expression.
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Acknowledgments |
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This work was supported in part by National Institutes of Health grants HL-46631, HL-35610, and HL-35252 to V.J.D.; grants from National Institute of Diabetes, Digestive and Kidney Diseases, and Bristol-Myers Squibb to H.J.J.; and grants from the Fund for Scientific Medical Research (FRSM, Belgium) and the Belgian programme on interuniversity attraction poles initiated by the Belgian State Prime Minister's Office (SSTC/DWTC) to C.S. G.K. is the recipient of a Postdoctoral Fellowship Award from the American Heart Association, California Affiliate. C.S. is a Research Director of the FNRS, Belgium. We extend special thanks to Ester Sternberg and Sam Listwak for providing the DNAs of the cross of LEWxF344 and to Donna M. Brown, Anna Pettersson, Michele Riviere, Jason S. Simon, Eric S. Winer, and Armand J. MacMurray for help in mapping Pnmt. Nucleotide sequence data from this article have been deposited in the GenBank data base under accession numbers U11275 and U11694.
Received May 25, 1994; first decision July 26, 1994; accepted July 10, 1995.
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