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(Hypertension. 1995;26:880-885.)
© 1995 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
The Egyptian National Hypertension Project (NHP)
Design and Rationale
From the Department of Cardiology, Cairo University (Egypt) (Z.A., M.M.I.); Welch Center for Prevention, Epidemiology, and Clinical Research, Johns Hopkins University (L.J.A., P.K.W.); Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine (L.J.A., P.K.W.); Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health (L.J.A., P.K.W.), Baltimore, Md; and the National Cancer Institute, Cairo, Egypt (A.S.I.).
Correspondence to M. Mohsen Ibrahim, MD, Professor of Cardiology, 1 El Sherifein St, Cairo 11111, Egypt.
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Abstract |
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Abstract Hypertension and its complications appear to be increasingly common in Egypt. The National Hypertension Project (NHP) is a collaborative Egyptian-American effort with the following objectives: (1) to determine the prevalence of hypertension and blood pressure–related preclinical and clinical complications in Egyptian adults, (2) to identify environmental factors associated with high blood pressure, and (3) to build an infrastructure for research and education in cardiovascular disease prevention in Egypt. The NHP surveys were conducted in six of Egypt's 26 governorates, representing distinct geographic regions. In each of these six governorates, a probability sample of 600 households was surveyed. NHP was conducted in two phases. In phase I a team of specially trained physicians conducted household surveys in which all adult residents (age
25 years) were screened for hypertension. In
phase II hypertensive adults identified in phase I (ie, those with
systolic pressure 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic
pressure 90 mm Hg and/or those receiving antihypertensive drug
therapy) along with a randomly selected sample of normotensive control
subjects were asked to participate in a more extensive evaluation. This
included a detailed history and clinical examination, an
electrocardiogram, an echocardiogram, laboratory
studies, and skin color reflectance (on a subsample). As the first
systematic, national survey of hypertension and its complications in an
Arab country, NHP should provide data of great interest to the
scientific, provider, and public health communities.
Key Words: Egypt • blood pressure • data collection • prevalence • health services research
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Introduction |
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In many economically developing countries, such as Egypt, patterns of illness are changing dramatically. Specifically, communicable diseases are becoming less common, and the incidence and prevalence of noncommunicable chronic diseases, such as hypertension, are rising.1 Indeed, several lines of evidence suggest that hypertension and its complications are a major health problem in Egypt. First, the incidence of blood pressure (BP)–related clinical events such as myocardial infarction, stroke, and end-stage renal disease appears to be increasing dramatically. Vital statistics (such as cause-specific mortality and hospitalization discharge diagnoses) along with clinical observations support this notion.2 Second, preliminary surveys suggest that the prevalence of hypertension may be as high as 24%.3 4
In 1991 the National Hypertension Project (NHP) of Egypt was initiated. NHP is a joint Egyptian-American project supported by the US Agency for International Development and the Egyptian government. In this national survey Egyptian scientists from Cairo University and the Egyptian Ministry of Health collaborate with scientists from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and the Johns Hopkins University. The principal NHP objectives are (1) to determine the prevalence of hypertension and BP-related complications in Egyptian adults, (2) to identify environmental factors associated with high BP in Egypt, and (3) to establish an infrastructure for research and education in the prevention and treatment of hypertension as well as other cardiovascular disease risk factors.
For several reasons NHP should be of considerable interest and importance to the scientific, medical, and public health communities in Egypt and other countries. First, although hypertension surveys have been completed in certain economically developing countries and regions,5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 no such study of hypertension has been conducted in an Arab country. Whether the prevalence and determinants of hypertension and its complications in Egypt are similar to those identified in Western countries and in other economically developing countries is an important question. Second, Egypt's population is extremely heterogenous in terms of its racial/ethnic composition, social class, and dietary habits. Furthermore, the types of communities (urban versus rural) and types of geographic environments (ie, coastal, frontier, delta, Upper Nile, and Lower Nile) are quite diverse. Such heterogeneity within the Egyptian population underscores the need for surveying representative samples of these groups and lends itself well to studies that examine the effect of environmental risk factors on the presence of hypertension and its complications. Third, the type and extent of the NHP data collection (eg, standardized BP measurements, echocardiography, electrocardiography, and lipid profiles on population-based samples of hypertensive and normotensive adults) present unique opportunities for descriptive and analytic studies. Finally, NHP has the potential to serve as a valuable model for future surveys of hypertension and other chronic diseases in economically developing countries.
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Methods |
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NHP was conducted in a preparatory stage and two subsequent main phases (a household prevalence survey for hypertension [phase I] and a detailed clinic evaluation of all hypertensive subjects and a subset of normotensive individuals [phase II]). Before its implementation the study was approved by an Institutional Review Board convened in Cairo, Egypt.
Preparatory Stage
A period of 10 months (March 1991 through December 1991) was
dedicated to preparation of the field survey. During this period
coinvestigators were recruited, the organizational structure was
established, the study design was finalized, the protocol and manual of
operations were written, data collection staff were recruited and
trained, and several pilot studies were conducted.
Sample Frame
From Egypt's most recent census conducted in 1986, we obtained
a representative sample from which we could estimate
the prevalence of hypertension and its complications in Egypt's adult
population (estimated to be more than 20 million in
1990).20 A multistage probability sample of clusters of
households in geographically defined areas was prepared. In the first
stage six of Egypt's 26 governorates were selected, each
representing a distinct region of Egypt (Fig 1 and Table 1). In brief,
Cairo, the capital, was selected as a stratum by itself because a
substantial fraction of Egypt's adult population (13.6%) lives in
this large urban area. Port Said was selected to represent the
coastal cities, Sharkia to represent the mixed urban-rural
regions of the Nile delta, Bani Sweif to represent northern
Upper Egypt, Aswan to represent southern Upper Egypt and the
border region with Sudan, and El Wadi El Gedid to represent the
oases and frontier regions.
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In the second stage of the sampling schema (Fig 2) four areas (the capital of the governorate, a village associated with the capital, one rural center [a Markaze], and one village associated with this rural center) were surveyed in the combined urban-rural governorates of Sharkia, Bani Sweif, and Aswan. The capital was selected with certainty, and the other three areas were selected with probability proportionate to size. In Cairo and Port Said, three areas (ie, kisms) were selected based on socioeconomic conditions (ie, one with a high, one with a middle, and one with a low socioeconomic standard of living). In El Wadi El Gedid, three randomly selected areas were surveyed.
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In the third stage five enumeration areas were randomly selected. Within each of these five areas, one fifth of the requisite number of households (30 in the areas of the urban-rural governorates and 40 in the areas of all other governorates) were identified for the survey with the use of a systematic sampling procedure with a random start. Thus, a total of 600 households were surveyed in each of the six governorates. In phase I of NHP all household members aged 25 years and older were asked to participate.
All hypertensive individuals (ie, those with an average
systolic BP 140 mm Hg and/or diastolic BP 90
mm Hg and/or those receiving antihypertensive drug therapy) identified
in phase I and a representative sample of
nonhypertensive control subjects from phase I (matched for sex and
enumeration area) were asked to participate in phase II of NHP. Because
of the time-consuming battery of investigations, only one control
subject was enrolled for every two hypertensive individuals.
Data Collection
The six governorates were studied sequentially over 18 months.
In phase I social workers visited the identified households twice: once
a week before and then 1 day before the physician survey team arrived.
Survey teams of two physicians (one male and one female) screened four
to five households per day. Normally, written informed consent was
obtained before subjects participated in the survey. Verbal consent was
deemed satisfactory in the setting of illiteracy. In addition to BP
measurements, basic demographic and socioeconomic information was
collected (see Table 2 for a list of phase I data
collection items). Two types of interviewer-administered
questionnaires were given, one to the head of the household
(enumerating all adults 25 years of age and older and collecting
"common" data pertaining to all household members) and another to
each adult in the household. An average of four BP readings was
calculated. If the systolic BP was 140 mm Hg and/or the
diastolic BP was greater than or equal to 90 mm Hg and/or
the individual was currently on antihypertensive drug therapy, he or
she was considered to be hypertensive and invited to participate in the
phase II study.
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All hypertensive subjects identified in phase I as well as a randomly selected sample of normotensive subjects were asked to participate in phase II, conducted in a local clinical center. In each area of each governorate phase II data collection activities began within a few days (generally <1 week) of the completion of phase I. In phase II, data collectors were blinded to participant status (normotensive or hypertensive). At the center, phase II participants were asked to provide more detailed information regarding their medical history. Weight, height, and waist and hip circumferences were measured; then the subject underwent a detailed physical examination. Laboratory samples included blood samples for fasting and postprandial blood sugar, serum lipids, blood urea nitrogen, serum creatinine, uric acid, and serum electrolytes (processed locally, frozen at -30°C, and then transported to Cairo for batch analyses). An aliquot from a 12-hour overnight urine collection was sent to the central laboratory for analysis of electrolytes. At the field center a midstream urine sample was analyzed for protein and sugar as well as examined microscopically for direct and indirect evidence of schistosomiasis (ova, hematuria, and/or casts). The participant then had a resting electrocardiogram (ECG) and echocardiogram (2-dimensional, M-mode, and Doppler). Ambulatory BP measurements, skin color reflectance, carotid wall thickness measurements, glycosylated hemoglobin, and fasting and postprodial insulin were obtained in selected samples of phase II participants.
Measurement and Quality-Control Procedures
Special procedures included (1) standardization of data
collection for key variables; (2) training, certification, and
recertification of data collectors; (3) direct observation of data
collectors in the field; (4) assessments of intraobserver and
interobserver variabilities; and (5) rigorous data entry and management
techniques. Selected protocols for key NHP variables and procedures
are described below.
Blood Pressure
BP was measured manually by trained and certified observers
using a standard mercury sphygmomanometer and following a common
protocol adapted from procedures recommended by the American Heart
Association.21 In brief, an appropriately sized cuff was
placed on the participant's right arm. After the subject had rested 5
minutes in the seated position, a 30-second pulse was recorded. The
cuff was then inflated and the pulse obliteration pressure
recorded. For each BP measurement the cuff was inflated to 30
mm Hg above the pulse obliteration pressure. Two BP measurements
separated by 30 seconds were then obtained. The final pair of BP
measurements was recorded in a similar fashion after completion of
the interviewer-administered questionnaire.
All BP observers in NHP were trained and certified in the standardized measurement of BP with criteria adopted from the Trials of Hypertension Prevention.22 The training process included a review of videotapes on BP measurement, supervised BP measurements with the use of a dual stethoscope, and audiotape tests. Recertification courses were held approximately every 6 months. In the field, intraobserver and interobserver repeatability was assessed on separate 5% samples of the phase I participants.
Weight, Height, and Body Circumference Measurements
Weight was recorded by trained staff using a certified
double balance beam scale placed on a firm level surface. Height was
measured from a Frankfort plane positioned at a 90° angle against a
wall-mounted metal tape. All body circumference measurements were
taken with an anthropometric centimeter measuring tape. Waist girth was
measured from the horizontal plane across the minimum girth between the
lowest lateral portion of the rib cage and iliac crest. Hip girth was
measured at the level of maximal protrusion of the gluteal muscles.
Echocardiography
Cardiologists specializing in clinical
echocardiography followed a common protocol. In
brief, echocardiography (2-D, M-mode, and
Doppler) was performed with a portable machine (OTE Sim 500).
Parasternal long-axis and short-axis views at the level of the
papillary muscles were obtained. Left ventricular
end-systolic and end-diastolic dimensions
as well as septal and posterior wall thicknesses were assessed from
M-mode measurements under 2-D guidance; measurements were based on an
average of three sequential readings. Apical four-chamber and
five-chamber views were used for assessment of regional wall motion
abnormalities and for Doppler examination, which included
recordings of both transmitral and transaortic flow patterns,
detailed above. The initial interpretation was done in the field, and
the second interpretation of the videotaped tracing was independently
performed by another cardiologist at Cairo University Hospital.
Replicate tracings were recorded in 10% of participants (5% by
the same observer and another 5% by a different observer).
Electrocardiography
Selected, trained individuals obtained all ECG tracings. A
12-lead resting ECG was recorded on a three-channel
recorder. At least three beats were obtained for each lead in
addition to a double-speed strip for precise interval estimation.
Subsequently, the ECGs were interpreted centrally by trained
cardiologists following the Minnesota coding system.23
Data Management and Entry
In the field all forms were reviewed and edited. Subsequently,
selected, trained staff entered all data at the central office. A
number of techniques were used to minimize data entry errors, including
range validation, cross-validation, duplicate entry of key
variables (eg, BP), and complete duplicate entry of all data on a
10% sample of participants.
Laboratory
All laboratory personnel were skilled technicians with at least
5 years of experience. For all assays blinded replicate
analyses for intratest and intertest variabilities were
performed in 10% of assays.
Minimization of Nonresponse
A letter was delivered to each household in the NHP survey
informing the residents about NHP and of the date of the scheduled
visit. A week before the visit social workers went to the household to
answer any questions and confirm the date. On the day of the visit
social workers introduced the NHP teams to the household members.
Separate days were planned for call-backs to reach absentees. Two
call-backs were attempted.
Study Organization
The joint Egyptian-American investigative team consisted of
scientists from Cairo University; Johns Hopkins University; the
National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; and the Egyptian Ministry of
Health. A team of cardiologists, organized into various subcommittees,
assisted the Principal Investigator in the design, implementation, and
analysis of the surveys. Teams of physicians delegated from the
Ministry of Health were the principal data collectors in the field and
were the data entry personnel. Minimum requirements for the data
collectors included a bachelor's degree in medicine and surgery,
willingness to travel to field sites, and a commitment to participate
in the project for at least 2 years. Important aspects of the study
organization included the high caliber and advanced training of all
study personnel and frequent interaction between the Egyptian and
American scientists. Key personnel are listed in
"Acknowledgments."
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsDiscussionReferences |
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NHP is the first systematic, nationwide survey of hypertension and its complications in an Arab country. As such, it provides an impressive database for addressing a number of issues relevant to the scientific, provider, and public health communities in Egypt and other countries. First, using rigorous methodology, the study will provide information heretofore unavailable in Egypt, namely, accurate national estimates of the prevalence of hypertension in Egypt as well as similar information for specific geographic regions and populations in Egypt (eg, Nubians). Second, variation by region and population, if confirmed, will allow for more focused hypertension detection, treatment, and prevention initiatives in higher prevalence settings as well as scientific inquiries with the goal of explaining such variation. Third, the extent and high quality of NHP observations (eg, BP measurements, ECG, echocardiography, laboratory studies, and skin color reflectance) should help to elucidate the role of putative risk factors for hypertension in Egypt (eg, schistosomiasis, skin color) as well as the role of conventional risk factors such as obesity and dietary sodium. Fourth, the study provides what we believe is the first population-based survey using echocardiography. The infrequent use of antihypertensive medications increases the potential value of these data because the results are unlikely to be confounded by medication use. Finally, the design and organizational structure of NHP could serve as models for future surveys of hypertension and other chronic diseases conducted in developing countries.
An important strength of the NHP study is its organizational structure, in which Egyptian and American scientists have collaborated in the design, conduct, and analysis of the study. Such collaboration allows for rapid protocol development, use of state-of-the-art survey methodology, and efficient training of staff. Among the potential limitations of the study are its cross-sectional design, which limits inferences regarding causality when associations between exposures and diseases are identified. Follow-up of the NHP cohort should permit more satisfactory documentation of these relationships in longitudinal analyses. A second limitation relates to the lack of detailed dietary data. However, the collection of urinary electrolyte excretion concentrations, along with determinations of weight and reported alcohol intake, permit adjustment for the most important known risk factors for hypertension.24 An additional challenge pertains to classification of variables, such as socioeconomic status, that depend heavily on local culture and tradition. In the analyses we intend to correlate hypertension prevalence with common proxies of socioeconomic status, such as education and income, and relevant variables unique to the Egyptian population (eg, presence of electricity and air conditioning). In addition, we will develop and validate scales incorporating the responses to these variables.
Finally, in planning and implementing the protocol we encountered a number of practical challenges (eg, the recruitment of participants, retention of staff, and procurement of supplies). In each instance the problem was addressed in a satisfactory fashion without compromising the scientific integrity of the study. For instance, we relied on local social workers to enhance our response rates, thus ensuring a representative sample. Furthermore, standardization of measurement techniques and frequent training and certification courses allowed us to replace experienced staff with well-trained substitutes.
In summary, the NHP, a collaborative Egyptian-American project, is the first systematic, nationwide survey of hypertension and its complications to be conducted in an Arab country. The extent and quality of NHP data collection procedures should provide an impressive database on BP and other cardiovascular risk factors. Furthermore, it is anticipated that results from NHP will provide the scientific basis for launching national initiatives focusing on the prevention of BP-related clinical complications in Egyptian adults. Such efforts will include public and physician education programs and the development of national guidelines for hypertension prevention, screening, and treatment.
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Acknowledgments |
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This research was sponsored by the US Agency for International Development; the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute; and the Egyptian Ministry of Health and Education. The NHP Investigative Team includes the following members: Principal Investigator: M. Mohsen Ibrahim; Assistant Principal Investigator: Hussein H. Rizk; Clinical Investigators: Wael Abdel Aal, Wafaa El Aroussy, Zeinab Ashour, Hatem El Atroush, Saad Farrag, Soliman Gharieb, Sherif Helmy, Hossam Kandil, Hassan Khaled, Amal Khalifa, Karima Hassan Khalil, Salwa Morcos, Wael El Naggar, Mamdouh Rayan, Hisham Salah, Yasser Sharaf, Sameh Zaghloul, and Khaled Ziayada; Laboratory Investigators: Amal Rizk and Rasheed Bahgat; Egyptian Ministry of Health Field Coordinators: Hussein El Sayed Hussein and Magdy Aziz; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Researchers: Ruth Hegyeli and Edward Roccella; Consultant Epidemiologists: Amal Samy, Paul K. Whelton, and Lawrence J. Appel; Blood Pressure Measurement Consultant: Jeanne Charleston; Data Entry: Amira Salah, Mohammed Aly el Sayed, and Mona Nour; Project Secretary: Lubna Abdel Fattah.
Received February 13, 1995; first decision March 23, 1995; accepted July 11, 1995.
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