(Hypertension. 1996;27:56-61.)
© 1996 American Heart Association, Inc.
Articles |
Plasma of Preeclamptic Women Stimulates and Then Inhibits Endothelial Prostacyclin
From the Magee-Womens Research Institute and Departments of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Sciences, University of Pittsburgh (Pa), and Gensia, Inc, San Diego, Calif (J.B.).
Correspondence to J.M. Roberts, Magee-Womens Research Institute, 204 Craft Ave, Pittsburgh, PA 15213.
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Abstract |
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Abstract We propose that the dichotomy between the in vivo reduction in intravascular prostacyclin production that occurs in preeclampsia and the in vitro stimulatory effect of plasma from preeclamptic patients on endothelial cell prostacyclin production is due to differential effects of chronic versus acute exposure to the plasma. We studied the acute versus chronic effects of 2% plasma from healthy pregnant and preeclamptic subjects by measuring endothelial prostacyclin production at different time periods after exposure to plasma. To determine whether such effects were specific to prostacyclin, we also measured prostaglandin E2 production. To determine whether chronic changes in prostacyclin production resulted from altered cellular responsiveness, we stimulated cells that had been exposed to plasma for 72 hours with arachidonic acid and measured prostaglandin production. Preliminary characterization of the plasma factor or factors responsible for alterations in prostaglandin production was performed. After 24 hours cells exposed to plasma from preeclamptic women produced more prostacyclin and prostaglandin E2 than cells exposed to plasma from healthy pregnant women. In contrast, after 72 hours exposure to plasma from preeclamptic women resulted in less endothelial cell prostacyclin production than exposure to plasma from healthy pregnant women, but there were no such differences in prostaglandin E2 production. Cells that had been exposed to plasma from preeclamptic women for 72 hours produced less prostacyclin but the same quantity of prostaglandin E2 after stimulation with arachidonic acid than cells exposed to plasma from healthy pregnant women. The plasma factor or factors responsible for altered prostacyclin production were sensitive to heat, acid, and proteases. In contrast to acute exposure, chronic exposure to plasma from preeclamptic women alters endothelial cells to result in decreased prostacyclin production, an observation consistent with in vivo findings.
Key Words: endothelium • prostacyclin • preeclampsia • pregnancy
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Introduction |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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There is accumulating evidence for a pathogenic model for preeclampsia, whereby a hypoxic fetoplacental unit secretes a factor into the maternal plasma/serum that causes dysfunction of vascular endothelial cells.1 Many of the pathophysiological changes of preeclampsia can be explained by activation or injury of endothelial cells. Although intact endothelium has anticoagulant properties and modifies the response of vascular smooth muscle to agonists, the functional properties of endothelial cells are greatly altered when activated,2 with promotion of coagulation and increased sensitivity to vasopressor agents, which are major features of preeclampsia. Further evidence of endothelial dysfunction in the disorder includes the characteristic change in glomerular capillary endothelial morphology,3 increased capillary permeability,4 and elevated blood levels of molecules associated with endothelial cell activation, such as endothelin5 and cellular fibronectin.6 Support for this concept comes from studies examining the effect of sera from preeclamptic women on endothelial cells in vitro. Sera from preeclamptic women stimulate platelet-derived growth factor mRNA and protein production,7 increase intracellular triglycerides,8 and stimulate cellular fibronectin release.9
Prostacyclin (prostaglandin I2 [PGI2]), the major prostanoid produced by endothelial cells, is a potent vasodilator and inhibits platelet aggregation. Its production by the endothelium is thought to be relevant to the control of vascular resistance and the maintenance of the nonthrombogenic surface of the vascular endothelium.10 Preeclampsia is associated with deficient intravascular production of PGI2.10 11 Paradoxically, we and other investigators have reported that serum or plasma from women with preeclampsia increases in vitro endothelial cell generation of PGI2 after 24 hours compared with the concentrations generated after exposure to serum or plasma from normal pregnancies.12 13 With the use of a different experimental paradigm, in which cells were exposed to serum that was then removed, endothelial cell PGI2 production was reduced 48 hours after exposure to serum from preeclamptic women compared with that after exposure to serum from healthy pregnant women.8 These differences are unlikely to be due to the variety of different cell types that have been studied, because when the effects of exposure to plasma from preeclamptic and healthy pregnant women on different cell types were compared, similar patterns of PGI2 production were observed.13
Preeclampsia is associated with altered lipid metabolism, including elevated circulating triglyceride levels.14 Interestingly, exposure to hyperlipidemic serum is also associated with an initial increase in endothelial cell PGI2 release, but chronic exposure results in reduced PGI2 release.15 Time course experiments examining the effects on endothelial cell PGI2 production of increasing exposure times to preeclamptic serum or plasma have not previously been reported. We thus compared the effects of plasma from healthy pregnant and preeclamptic women on PGI2 production by microvascular endothelial cells at different times of exposure to the plasma. To determine whether such effects were specific to PGI2, we also measured the production of PGE2 (produced by endothelial cells and thought to have a vasodilator effect in vivo10 ). On finding that exposure to plasma from preeclamptic women for 72 hours resulted in reduced PGI2 production, we determined whether this chronic change resulted from altered cellular responsiveness by stimulating cells that had been exposed to plasma for 72 hours with arachidonic acid and measuring prostaglandin production. We also performed preliminary characterization of the plasma factor or factors responsible for alterations in prostaglandin production.
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Methods |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Subjects
Plasma samples (prepared from blood collected into EDTA) were studied to avoid the confounding effects of cellular products released into serum during blood coagulation. Twenty-five nulliparous pregnant subjects were recruited from the Obstetric Service of the Medical Center at the University of California–San Francisco and from the Magee-Womens Hospital, Pittsburgh, with the use of protocols approved by the respective hospital Ethics Committees. Fifteen subjects had preeclampsia, defined by the criteria of hypertension, proteinuria, hyperuricemia, and reversal of hypertension and proteinuria after pregnancy.16 Hypertension was defined as an increase of 30 mm Hg systolic or 15 mm Hg diastolic pressure compared with values obtained before 20 weeks of gestation, or an absolute blood pressure greater than or equal to 140/90 mm Hg after 20 weeks. (If blood pressure recordings in the first half of pregnancy were unknown, all subjects included in the study were healthy when reviewed in the puerperium.) Proteinuria was defined as greater than 500 mg per 24-hour collection or greater than or equal to 2+ on a voided or 1+ on a catheterized random urine specimen. Hyperuricemia was defined as greater than or equal to 0.33 mmol/L at term (
1 SD above the normal mean concentration for
gestational age).17 Ten healthy pregnant subjects were
also recruited.
No subject was known to have chronic hypertension or
renal or
metabolic disease. All subjects gave informed consent for
their inclusion in the study after the nature of the research had been
explained to them. The characteristics of each group are detailed in
the Table
.
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Sample Collection
Blood samples were obtained within 24 hours
before delivery.
Since samples were collected by the same investigative team,
collection, preparation, and storage were similar in San Francisco and
Pittsburgh. Briefly, samples were maintained at 26°C for 2 to 10
hours before centrifugation at 2000g for 20
minutes and then were aliquoted under sterile conditions and stored at
-80°C. Samples obtained in San Francisco were transported at
-60°C to Pittsburgh, where all experiments were performed.
Before the experiments samples were thawed, realiquoted, and refrozen.
To test the effects of these handling procedures, we determined that
there were no correlations in prostaglandin
production (at any time interval) after exposure of cells to
plasma with (1) time from venipuncture to
centrifugation (r2=.01 to
.16, P>.05) and (2) time of storage (up to 30 months)
(r2=.03 to .14, P>.05), and
that up to five episodes of freezing and thawing resulted in no
alteration in PGI2 production
(P>.1).
Prostaglandin production after exposure of cells to plasma samples collected in Pittsburgh was similar to that after exposure to samples from San Francisco. There were no significant differences in time of storage or time from venipuncture to centrifugation between the subject groups (P>.05).
Cell Culture
The endothelial cell culture was an
endothelial cell line from a bovine coronary
microvessel (B88) (Gensia Pharmaceutical). Since the establishment of
this cell line, the phenotype of the
endothelium has been maintained over 180 passages. The
cellular characteristics include growth in a monolayer;
"cobblestone" morphology at confluence; positive
immunostaining for von Willebrand
factor–related antigen; presence of receptors for
acetylated low-density lipoprotein; and secretion of
prostaglandins, tissue-type plasminogen
activator, and plasminogen
activator inhibitor-1.
B88 cells were grown on uncoated plastic culture
dishes in
-minimum essential medium supplemented by 10%
heat-inactivated horse serum, 2 mmol/L
L-glutamine, 20 U/mL nystatin, 5 µg/mL gentamicin, and 20
µg/mL kanamycin at 37°C in 5% CO2. Cell cultures were
dispersed with trypsin (0.05%)/EDTA (0.53 mmol/L), plated in
six-well dishes, and grown as confluent monolayers. Preliminary
experiments in which cell number was measured by a hemacytometer
demonstrated that each well contained approximately
106 cells when a confluent monolayer had been
established. Experimental results are thus expressed per
106 cells. The consistency of the cell
number of each well was confirmed by measurement of protein
content.
The cell monolayers were made quiescent in serum-free medium for 24 hours. This serum-free medium was then replaced with heparinized plasma. Heparinized (500 U/mL) plasma from each subject was added to duplicate wells. It was necessary to heparinize the EDTA-prepared plasma to prevent the diluted samples from clotting when added to the cells. Heparin alone had previously been found to have no effect on human umbilical vein endothelial cell PGI2 production,13 and a preliminary experiment confirmed that at this concentration heparin did not affect B88 PGI2 production. In further preliminary experiments similar effects were observed at 2% and 10% plasma concentrations; the former concentration was thus used.
Prostaglandin Production
PGI2 (stable metabolite,
6-keto-PGF1) and PGE2
concentrations were measured by enzyme immunoassay (Cayman Co).
Prostaglandin levels were determined in medium containing
2% plasma before the B88 cells were exposed to medium and in the
aliquots of the medium removed from the cells after each time interval.
Intra-assay variations were 3% and 5%, respectively; interassay
variations were 8% and 10%. In addition, we tested for
cross-reactivity of arachidonic acid (up to 200
mmol/L) and found no interference with the assays.
Calculations and Statistics
Results are expressed as
prostaglandin
production per 24 hours calculated by subtracting the amount of
prostaglandin produced before the time interval from the
total produced at the end of the time interval.
Parametric statistics were used to compare the characteristics of the subjects studied (Student's unpaired t tests), and replicates of prostaglandin production were obtained after exposure to pooled samples (ANOVA with Bonferroni/Dunn post hoc test), with values expressed as mean±SE.
Nonparametric statistics (Mann-Whitney U test) were used to compare levels of prostaglandin production after exposure to individual plasma samples, as the data for the values of these parameters were found to be significantly skewed. Medians thus were used to measure central tendency.
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Results |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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Subject characteristics are summarized in the Table
. As anticipated from the definition criteria, the
systolic and diastolic pressures at term were
significantly greater in the preeclamptic than healthy pregnant women
(P<.001). Gestational ages at delivery were significantly
lower in the preeclamptic group compared with the healthy pregnant
group (P<.05), as were infant birth weights
(P<.001). Within each group there was no correlation
between prostaglandin production from cells exposed
to plasma and gestational age at delivery (Spearman correlation). None
of the infant birth weights in the healthy pregnant group were below
the 10th percentile for gestational age (small for gestational age); in
contrast, five of the infants in the preeclampsia group were small for
gestational age. No differences between the groups were found when
maternal age, prepregnant weight, or prepregnant blood pressures were
compared, and no correlations were found between these subject
characteristics and prostaglandin production from
cells exposed to plasma at any time interval.
Time Course Study
Duplicate wells were incubated with 2%
plasma from each of the 25
subjects. Biovariability was minimized by study of the effects of all
plasma samples on the same generation of B88 cells. Medium was removed
for measurement of prostaglandin production after
24, 48, and 72 hours.
Fig 1 illustrates the endothelial
cell
PGI2 production (stable metabolite,
6-keto-PGF1) of the two groups of
women over the 72 hours of the time course study. Production in
the first 24 hours was greater in cells exposed to plasma from
preeclamptic women than cells exposed to plasma from healthy pregnant
women (P<.01, Mann-Whitney U test).
PGI2 production did not differ between the groups
in the second 24 hours. Between 48 and 72 hours after cells were
exposed to plasma, PGI2 production was
significantly lower in cells exposed to plasma from preeclamptic women
compared with cells exposed to plasma from healthy pregnant women
(P<.01).
|
) and healthy pregnant (
) women. Bars
represent medians. *P<.01, preeclamptic vs healthy
pregnant groups.
PGE2 production over the first 24 hours
of the
incubation was also greater in cells exposed to plasma from
preeclamptic women than in cells exposed to plasma from healthy
pregnant women (P<.01) (Fig 2). No
differences in PGE2 production between the groups
were demonstrable in the second 24-hour period. In contrast to the
PGI2 data, PGE2 production in the third
24-hour incubation period also did not differ (P>.2).
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Studies to Determine Whether the Chronic Reduction in
PGI2 Production Resulted From Altered
Cellular Responsiveness
The following experiment used B88 cells that
had been exposed to
2% pooled plasma from either the previously described preeclamptic
women (n=15) or the healthy pregnant women (n=10) for 72 hours.
Plasma
lipid concentrations in the pooled samples were determined
enzymatically.18 19 Similar cholesterol levels
were found in the pooled samples from preeclamptic (7.58 mmol/L) and
healthy pregnant (6.39 mmol/L) women. In contrast,
triglyceride concentrations were higher in the pooled
samples from the preeclamptic (>4.87 mmol/L) than healthy pregnant
(2.03 mmol/L) women.
Medium was removed from the cells exposed to plasma from subjects with preeclampsia for 72 hours and replaced with 1 mL of 100 µmol/L arachidonic acid (Sigma Chemical Co). Endothelial cell PGI2 and PGE2 production after 15 minutes, 1 hour, and 4 hours was then measured.
Fig 3 illustrates prostaglandin
production in the first 15 minutes after
arachidonic acid stimulation. PGI2
production was significantly less by cells that had been
exposed to plasma from preeclamptic women than by cells exposed to
plasma from healthy pregnant women (P<.01), whereas no such
differences in PGE2 production were found. Similar
differences in PGI2 production (but not in
PGE2 production) between cells exposed to plasma
from the two subject groups were found after 1 hour and 4 hours of
exposure to arachidonic acid (P<.01, data
not shown).
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Studies to Characterize the Responsible Factor or Factors in
Preeclamptic Plasma
The biochemical characteristics of the factor or
factors in the
plasma from subjects with preeclampsia that altered
prostaglandin production were evaluated for
sensitivity to proteases, heat, and acid. In the following experiments
untreated and treated 2% pooled plasma samples from the preeclamptic
women (n=15) or healthy pregnant women (n=10) were incubated
with the
cells: (1) Plasma was treated with heat to 60°C for 2 hours before
incubation with cells; (2) plasma was acidified with 1 mol/L HCl to pH
3 for 15 minutes and then neutralized with 1 mol/L NaOH to pH 7 before
incubation with cells; and (3) protease sensitivity was tested with the
cysteine protease papain (Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals, 0.2
U/mL). Plasma samples were incubated with papain and then incubated
with 20% (vol/vol) 2-macroglobulin (Boehringer
Mannheim), a protease inhibitor that irreversibly binds
proteases via covalent bonds.20
2-Macroglobulin was removed by
centrifugation (5 minutes, 800g).
Medium was removed for measurement of prostaglandin production after 24, 48, and 72 hours.
Production in the First 24
Hours of Incubation With
Plasma
When the plasma was from preeclamptic women, PGI2
production was significantly lower after incubation with pooled
plasma samples treated with protease than untreated samples
(P<.05), and the effects of treatment with heat or acid
approached significance (.1>P>.05). When the plasma was
from healthy pregnant women, no differences in PGI2
production were found between incubations with untreated
samples and samples treated with heat, acid, or protease (Fig
4,
top).
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The significant difference between PGI2 production by cells incubated with plasma from preeclamptic women compared with plasma from healthy pregnant women (P<.01) was eliminated by heat, acid, and protease treatment.
Production Between
24 and 72 Hours of Incubation With
Plasma
When the plasma was from preeclamptic women,
PGI2 production was significantly greater after
incubation with pooled plasma samples treated with heat than untreated
samples (P<.05), and the effects of treatment with acid or
protease approached significance (.1>P>.05). When the
plasma was from healthy pregnant women, no differences in
PGI2 production between incubations with untreated
samples and samples treated with heat, acid, or protease were found
(Fig 4, bottom).
The significant difference between PGI2 production by cells incubated with plasma from preeclamptic women compared with plasma from healthy pregnant women (P<.01) was eliminated by heat, acid, and protease treatment.
No effects of heat, acid, or protease treatment on PGE2 production after incubation with plasma from preeclamptic or healthy pregnant women were found in either time interval (data not shown).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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After 24 hours production of both PGI2 and PGE2 was greater by endothelial cells exposed to plasma from preeclamptic women than to plasma from healthy pregnant women. These findings concur with previous studies of endothelial cell PGI2 production.12 13 In contrast, by 72 hours PGI2 production was diminished in cells exposed to plasma from preeclamptic women compared with cells exposed to that from healthy pregnant women (a finding in accord with in vivo observations10 11 ), whereas no differences in PGE2 production were found.
These findings suggest that the differential effect of chronic exposure to plasma from preeclamptic women may be specific to PGI2 production. When the plasma was removed after 72 hours and the cells were stimulated with arachidonic acid, PGI2 production by cells that had been exposed to plasma from preeclamptic women was lower than the production by cells exposed to plasma from healthy pregnant women; however, there was no differential stimulation of PGE2 production. Chronic exposure to a factor or factors in plasma from subjects with preeclampsia appears to alter the responsiveness of the endothelial cells to arachidonic acid. It is difficult to extrapolate the in vivo situation (where the half-life of endothelial cells extends for months) to a cell culture environment. However, the period of 72 hours may be more relevant to the in vivo situation than to the previously reported shorter time periods.
It is unlikely that the differences in PGI2 production were due to differential cytotoxic effects of plasma from preeclamptic and healthy pregnant women. Similar PGE2 levels were produced after 72 hours of exposure to plasma. Moreover, we have found no differences in B88 endothelial cellular viability (assessed by lactate dehydrogenase determination) between cells exposed to plasma from preeclamptic women and cells exposed to that from healthy pregnant women at time intervals ranging from 24 to 120 hours (unpublished data, 1994). However, considerations of cytotoxicity are complicated by the known cytoprotective effect of prostaglandin,21 which might mask an initial effect of plasma from preeclamptic women.
There is a close parallel between these results and those obtained after bovine aortic endothelial cells were exposed to hyperlipidemic serum,15 with increased PGI2 production at 24 hours and reduced production after 72 hours. Preeclampsia is associated with abnormal lipid metabolism,14 and plasma triglycerides were elevated in the present study. In addition, a number of reports indicate that blood levels of lipid peroxidation products are elevated in women with preeclampsia (reviewed in Reference 22). Lipid peroxidation is a process that occurs in all cells and involves the oxidative conversion of unsaturated fatty acids to lipid peroxides.22 Normal levels of lipid peroxides play an essential physiological role as activators of prostaglandin endoperoxide synthase in the prostaglandin cascade.23 However, as lipid peroxide levels become elevated under certain pathological conditions, PGI2 synthase is specifically impaired.23 The diminution in PGI2 production seen after exposure to plasma from women with preeclampsia may thus be occurring as a consequence of elevated lipid peroxidation associated with the disease.
An alternative possible mechanism, which would account for the acute stimulatory effect of plasma from preeclamptic women relative to that from healthy pregnant women, concerns the interaction between nitric oxide and prostaglandin synthesis. Under different conditions nitric oxide has been reported as having either an activating or an inhibiting effect on cyclooxygenase enzymes, which are key regulators of prostaglandin synthesis.24 25 We have previously reported that nitric oxide synthase inhibition by L-arginine antagonists results in reduced production of both nitric oxide and prostaglandins by B88 endothelial cells,26 suggesting that nitric oxide is acting to increase cyclooxygenase activity. Exposure to plasma from preeclamptic women increases B88 cell nitric oxide production,27 and this might also contribute to the initial elevation in prostaglandin synthesis.
Interestingly, at 72 hours levels of PGI2 production were very low after exposure of cells to plasma from approximately half the subjects with preeclampsia, and production was similar to control levels in the other half. Although this suggests different subgroups, there were no evident differences in the clinical expression of preeclampsia in subsets of subjects whose plasma resulted in the extremes of PGI2 release.
Similar differences in prostaglandin production were found with pooled and individual plasma samples. Absolute levels measured after exposure to pooled and individual samples were different, which is explained by the fact that different passages of the B88 cells were used. The differences were typical of those found with different passages and were found when plasma from healthy pregnant women and preeclamptic women was studied.
This study provides further support for the concept that a circulating factor or factors are responsible for differences in endothelial cell function between preeclamptic and healthy pregnant women, with differences being found at a plasma concentration as low as 2%. Preliminary characterization studies suggested that the factor or factors were sensitive to heat, acid, and protease treatment. Whatever the underlying mechanism, the time course experiment resolved the dichotomy between in vitro stimulatory effects on PGI2 production of plasma from preeclamptic women12 13 and the deficient in vivo PGI2 production that has previously been reported.10 11
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Acknowledgments |
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This study was supported by National Institutes of Health grant HD-30367. P.N.B. was the 1994 Wellbeing (UK)/American College of Obstetrics and Gynecology Exchange Research Fellow. This article is dedicated to the late Zbigniew Rymaszewski, Department of Endocrinology, University of Cincinnati (Ohio), without whose collaboration this study would not have been possible. We gratefully acknowledge the help of the Clinical Data Core and nursing staff of both the Magee-Womens Hospital, Pittsburgh, and the Medical Center at the University of California–San Francisco for invaluable assistance in sample collection.
Received January 18, 1995; first decision March 14, 1995; accepted September 20, 1995.
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References |
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TopAbstractIntroductionMethods Results Discussion References |
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1. Roberts JM, Taylor RN, Musci TJ, Rodgers GM, Hubel CA, McLaughlin MK. Preeclampsia: an endothelial cell disorder. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1989;161:1200-1204. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
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6. Taylor RN, Crombleholme WR, Friedman SA, Jones LA, Casal DC, Roberts JM. High plasma cellular fibronectin levels correlate with biochemical and clinical features of preeclampsia but cannot be attributed to hypertension alone. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1991;165:895-901. [Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
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