(Hypertension. 1999;33:487-492.)
© 1999 American Heart Association, Inc.
Scientific Contributions |
Renal Nerves Promote Sodium Excretion During Long-Term Increases in Salt Intake
From the Department of Physiology and Biophysics and the Department of Surgery (Cardiothoracic), University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson.
Correspondence to Thomas E. Lohmeier, PhD, Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Mississippi Medical Center, 2500 N State St, Jackson, MS 39216-4505. E-mail tlohmeier{at}physiology.umsmed.edu
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Abstract—To determine whether the renal nerves contribute to sodium homeostasis during long-term increments in sodium intake, studies were conducted in conscious dogs subjected to unilateral renal denervation and surgical division of the urinary bladder into hemibladders to allow separate 24-hour urine collection from denervated and innervated kidneys. They were fed a low sodium diet and continuously infused with isotonic saline (350 mL/d) to provide a daily sodium intake of
60 mmol.
After control measurements, sodium intake was increased to 470
mmol/d by increasing the rate of isotonic saline infusion to 3000 mL/d
for 5 days; this was followed by a 5-day recovery period.
Twenty-four-hour control values for mean arterial pressure
and ratios for urinary sodium, potassium, and creatinine
excretion from denervated and innervated kidneys (DEN/INN)
were 96±3, 1.06±0.04, 1.00±0.04, and 1.01±0.02 mm Hg,
respectively. During the 8-fold increase in sodium intake, there was
no long-term change in mean arterial pressure, and daily
sodium balance was achieved within 48 hours. Moreover, during the first
day of high salt intake, there were significant reductions in the
DEN/INN for sodium and potassium excretion, which persisted for the
entire 5-day period of increased sodium intake; on day 5, the DEN/INN
for sodium and potassium excretion was 0.86±0.03 and 0.86±0.04,
respectively. In contrast, the DEN/INN for creatinine
excretion remained at control levels during high salt intake.
Furthermore, similar long-term reductions in the DEN/INN for sodium and
potassium excretion occurred in a second group of dogs administered
adrenergic receptor–blocking agents for 5 days to interrupt the
functional effects of the renal nerves. These data indicate that
sustained renal sympathoinhibition promotes sodium and potassium
excretion during long-term increments in sodium intake by inhibiting
tubular reabsorption of these electrolytes.
Key Words: renal nerves • sodium excretion • sodium intake • sympathetic nervous system
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Neural reflexes promote sodium excretion after short-term increments in body fluid volume. Elegant studies in conscious animals have shown that suppression of renal sympathetic nerve activity contributes to natriuresis in response to volume expansion and elevations in intracardiac pressures.1 2 3 4 5 6 Further, cardiac denervation, cervical vagotomy, or blockade of cardiac afferents by intrapericardial procaine administration markedly attenuates renal sympathoinhibition and impairs the excretion of sodium after a short-term volume load. This indicates that cardiopulmonary (probably cardiac) reflexes with vagal afferents decrease renal sympathetic nerve activity and enhance renal excretion of salt and water when intravascular volume increases.
Although there is a rather thorough understanding of the role of reflex mechanisms in the short-term regulation of intravascular volume, it is unclear whether the renal nerves play a role in long-term control of body fluid volume. On the basis of short-term neurally induced changes in sodium excretion, it is often assumed that baroreflex-induced alterations in renal sympathetic nerve activity promote long-term changes in sodium excretion as well. However, this notion is incompatible with the observations that baroreflexes adapt to sustained changes in pressure.1 7 If adaptation is complete, baroreflexes would be unable to mediate long-term adjustments in renal sodium excretion during sustained alterations in body fluid volume. Therefore, if the renal nerves play a chronic role in sodium homeostasis, either baroreflexes (presumably cardiopulmonary baroreflexes) do not completely adapt or nonadapting baroreceptor-independent mechanisms account for volume-induced alterations in renal sympathetic nerve activity.
Experimental limitations have impeded an understanding of the role of the renal nerves in long-term control of sodium excretion. One major obstacle is that it is difficult to monitor time-dependent changes in renal sympathetic nerve activity over periods of days to weeks, and therefore it is not clear whether the level of sympathetic activity to the kidneys is altered by long-term changes in body fluid volume. An even greater problem occurs in assessing the functional effects of the renal nerves under long-term conditions. There have been a few studies that have examined the long-term excretory responses of bilaterally denervated animals to changes in sodium intake, but the results have been conflicting.8 9 10 11 This is not entirely surprising because a confounding factor in the interpretation of all studies in which the renal nerves are totally removed is the possible compensatory mechanisms that may be activated to maintain sodium balance in the absence of the renal nerves. Changes in arterial pressure, circulating hormones, and other factors activated by the absence of the renal nerves may mask the influence of the renal nerves in controlling sodium excretion during long-term alterations in salt intake.
The split-bladder preparation combined with unilateral renal denervation is a powerful technique for exposing a functional role of the renal nerves because both kidneys are exposed to the same perfusion pressures and hormonal influences.10 12 13 14 15 Consequently, any differences in sodium excretion between the kidneys can be attributed to either the direct or indirect effects of the renal nerves on renal excretory function. In the present study, we used the split-bladder preparation in combination with unilateral renal denervation to test the hypothesis that in the long term, the renal nerves promote sodium excretion during sustained increments in salt intake.
|
Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Animal Preparation
Eleven female dogs weighing 18 to 23 kg were used in this study. All procedures are in accordance with National Institutes of Health Guidelines, approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, and described further in recent communications.14 15 In brief, catheters made of Tygon microbore tubing were implanted in the lower abdominal aorta and inferior vena cava and exteriorized between the scapulae. Subsequently, the left kidney was denervated and the urinary bladder was surgically divided. Each half was then sutured to form hemibladders, and Silastic catheters were implanted to allow continuous 24-hour urine collection from each kidney. The catheters were exteriorized in the flank region and connected to sterile plastic bags that were changed daily.
Several days after surgery, the dogs were placed in metabolic cages in a room maintained at 22±3°C with a 12:12-hour light-dark cycle. They were fitted with a specially designed harness containing a pressure transducer (model P23 ID, Statham Laboratories, Inc) positioned at heart level. Isotonic saline was infused continuously into a venous catheter with a Wiz peristaltic pump (Isco) at a rate of 350 mL/d. A disposable filter (Cathivex, Millipore) was connected in series with the infusion to prevent passage of bacteria and other contaminants.
During a 2-week training and equilibration period and throughout the
study, the dogs were given free access to water and maintained on a
fixed daily diet of two 15.5-oz cans of prescription heart diet (H/D,
Hill's Pet Products) supplemented with 5 mL of vitamin syrup (VAL
Syrup, Fort Dodge Laboratories). Two cans of H/D provide 5 mmol
of sodium and 60 mmol of potassium. Thus, with the
intravenous saline infusion, sodium intake was 60
mmol/d. Water consumption was monitored daily, and 24-hour urine
samples were collected at 10 AM, 1 hour before feeding.
During this initial 2-week period, the dogs were trained to lie quietly
in their cages for collection of blood samples. Subsequently, 3 days of
control measurements preceded the experimental protocols described
below. Arterial blood samples (5 mL) were taken at 9
AM on intermittent days throughout the experiments. Body
temperature was measured each morning, and amoxicillin (250 mg),
dicloxacillin (250 mg), and a trimethoprim (400 mg) and
sulfamethoxazole (80 mg) combination were given
prophylactically twice a day.
Measurement of Hemodynamics
Throughout the study, arterial pressure was
monitored continuously from an arterial catheter connected
to the pressure transducer in the harness and recorded on a Grass
polygraph (model 7D, Grass Instruments). A microcomputer and customized
software12 14 16 were used to sample the signal from the
Grass recorder at 200 Hz for a duration of 12 seconds, once per
minute, 24 hours per day. The digitized data for each 12-second burst
were processed immediately to compute mean arterial
pressure (MAP) and heart rate. The daily values for MAP and heart rate
presented were determined from the average of 1260 sample
points collected during the 21-hour period between noon and 8
AM The hours excluded from the 24-hour analysis
included the time required for flushing catheters, calibrating blood
pressure transducers, feeding, and cleaning cages.
Experimental Protocols
High Salt Intake
After control measurements were taken, 6 dogs were subjected to
a 5-day period of increased salt intake. This was achieved by
increasing the rate of isotonic saline infusion from 350 to 3000 mL/d.
Subsequently, this 8-fold increase in sodium intake (from 60 to
470 mmol/d) was returned to control levels during a 5-day recovery
period. Throughout the control, experimental, and recovery periods,
arterial blood samples were taken on intermittent days for
determination of hematocrit, plasma renin activity (PRA), and the
plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium, and protein.
Adrenergic Receptor Blockade
After control measurements were taken, 5 additional dogs were
administered prazosin and propranolol for 5 days for
long-term blockade of 
- and ß-adrenergic receptors, respectively.
In this study, prazosin (Zenith Laboratories; 5 mg/kg per day, TID) was
administered orally and dl-propranolol (Sigma;
10 mg/kg per day) was added to the continuous intravenous
infusion of saline. The above doses of prazosin and
propranolol greatly attenuated the blood pressure responses
to bolus intravenous injections of
phenylephrine (10 µg/kg) and isoproterenol (5 µg/kg).
The 5-day period of adrenergic receptor blockade was followed by a
13-day recovery period. Arterial blood samples were taken
throughout the experiment as described above.
Analytical Methods
PRA was measured by radioimmunoassay.17 Plasma and
urine concentrations of sodium and potassium were determined by flame
photometry (IL 943, Instrumentation Laboratories), plasma protein
concentration by refractometry (American Optical), and hematocrit by a
micromethod (Autocrit II). Urinary creatinine concentration
was determined with a creatinine analyzer (model 2,
Beckman).
Statistical Analysis
Results are expressed as mean±SEM. Experimental and recovery
data were compared with control by ANOVA with Dunnett's t
test for multiple comparisons.18 Statistical
significance was considered to be P<0.05. The relative
excretion rates of sodium and potassium from denervated and
innervated kidneys are expressed by the ratio DEN/INN.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
High Salt Intake
The changes in MAP, heart rate, and urinary electrolyte excretion in response to increased salt intake are illustrated in Figures 1 through 3
. The average control values
for MAP and heart rate were 96±3 mm Hg and 66±4 bpm,
respectively. Average control values for urinary sodium excretion from
denervated and innervated kidneys were 31±1 and 30±1
mmol/d, respectively; the corresponding values for urinary potassium
excretion were 30±1 and 30±1 mmol/d, and for urinary
creatinine excretion, 3.4±0.2 and 3.4±0.1 mmol/d. As
a result of the approximately equal excretion rates of these
electrolytes and creatinine from denervated and
innervated kidneys before high salt intake, the DEN/INN for
sodium, potassium, and creatinine excretion during the
control period was 1.06±0.04, 1.00±0.04, and 1.01±0.02,
respectively.
|
|
|
As shown in Figure 1
, there was little or no change in MAP and
heart rate during high salt intake. MAP did increase 10 mm Hg
by day 3 of high salt, but on day 5, MAP (102±4 mm Hg) was not
significantly different from control (96±3 mm Hg). There were no
significant changes in heart rate during high salt intake.
Figure 2 illustrates the changes in
urinary sodium excretion during increased salt intake. By day 2, total
sodium excretion from both kidneys (467±5 mmol/d) equaled intake
(470 mmol/d) and remained at this level for the duration of high
salt; this represents an 8-fold increase in sodium excretion
from control levels (60±2 mmol/d), a change commensurate with the
increase in sodium intake. Moreover, and most importantly, the DEN/INN
for sodium excretion decreased abruptly on day 1 of high salt, and this
response was sustained throughout the entire 5-day period of increased
sodium intake. On day 5, the DEN/INN for sodium excretion was reduced
to 0.86±0.03 (control=1.06±0.04). Thus there was a 15% to 20%
greater increase in sodium excretion from innervated (day
5=261±3 mmol/d) versus denervated (day 5=223±6 mmol/d)
kidneys during high salt intake. During the recovery period, total
urinary sodium excretion and the DEN/INN for sodium excretion returned
to control levels within 2 days. These results indicate that the renal
nerves chronically promoted sodium excretion during increased sodium
intake.
Although there were no significant changes in total potassium excretion
during increased salt intake, the DEN/INN for potassium excretion
decreased in parallel with the fall in the DEN/INN for sodium excretion
(Figure 3). On day 5 of high salt intake,
the DEN/INN for potassium excretion was reduced to 0.86±0.04
(control=1.00±0.04), indicating that the innervated
kidneys (day 5=31±1 mmol/d) excreted 15% more potassium than
denervated kidneys (day 5=26±1 mmol/d). During the recovery
period, the DEN/INN for potassium excretion returned to control levels.
Thus the renal nerves promoted the excretion of potassium as well as
sodium during high salt intake.
During increased sodium intake there were no significant changes in total creatinine excretion. Further, in marked contrast to the fall in the DEN/INN for sodium and potassium excretion during high salt intake, there were no significant changes in the DEN/INN for creatinine excretion. On day 5 of high salt intake and on day 5 of the recovery period, the DEN/INN for creatinine excretion was 1.02±0.03 and 1.02±0.03, respectively (control=1.01±0.02). This indicates that during increased sodium intake, neurally induced sodium and potassium excretion occurred in the absence of changes in glomerular filtration rate (GFR).
Whereas there were no significant changes in plasma electrolyte concentration (control: plasma sodium concentration=146±1 mmol/L; plasma potassium concentration=4.2±0.1 mmol/L), hematocrit, plasma protein concentration, and PRA all decreased during high salt intake. Control values for hematocrit and plasma protein concentration were 38±2% and 6.3±0.2 g/dL, respectively; on day 5 of high salt intake, the corresponding values were 34±1% and 5.9±0.2 g/dL. During increased sodium intake, PRA decreased from a control value of 0.46±0.21 nmol angiotensin I · L · h-1 to undetectable levels.
Adrenergic Receptor Blockade
As illustrated in Figure 4, long-term - and ß-adrenergic receptor blockade produced sustained
hypotension and tachycardia. By day 5 of prazosin with
propranolol administration, MAP decreased from a control
value of 91±4 to 71±2 mm Hg and heart rate increased from
60±3 to 69±4 bpm.
|
The sodium excretory responses to long-term adrenergic receptor
blockade are shown in Figure 5. Despite
the fall in MAP, there was no significant change in total excretion of
sodium from both kidneys during administration of prazosin with
propranolol. Importantly, however, during adrenergic
receptor blockade, the DEN/INN for sodium excretion decreased from a
control value of 1.10±0.03 to 0.95±0.04 (day 5). This indicates that
compared with control conditions, 15% more sodium was excreted from
innervated than denervated kidneys during long-term
adrenergic blockade. During the recovery period, the DEN/INN for sodium
excretion returned to control levels. Thus during long-term adrenergic
receptor blockade, the relative changes in sodium excretion between
innervated and denervated kidneys mimicked those that
occurred during increased sodium intake.
|
There was no significant change in potassium balance during long-term
adrenergic receptor blockade, but the DEN/INN for potassium excretion
decreased in parallel with the DEN/INN for sodium excretion (Figure 6). As with sodium excretion, there was
an 15% decrease in the DEN/INN for potassium excretion
(control=1.07±0.06) by day 5 of adrenergic receptor blockade. Thus
during adrenergic receptor blockade, there was a relatively greater
excretion rate of potassium as well as sodium in innervated
versus denervated kidneys.
|
Control values for hematocrit, PRA, and the plasma concentrations of sodium, potassium, and protein were 37±2%, 0.38±0.20 nmol angiotensin I · L · h-1, 145±1 mmol/L, 4.3±0.1 mmol/L, and 6.7±0.3 g/dL, respectively. There were no significant changes in any of the above during long-term adrenergic receptor blockade.
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
The major finding of this study is that the renal nerves chronically promoted sodium excretion during sustained increments in sodium intake. Furthermore, because long-term adrenergic receptor blockade mimicked the influence of the renal nerves to promote sodium excretion during increased sodium intake, these results support the hypothesis that renal sympathoinhibition is a long-term compensatory mechanism for the regulation of body fluid volume during volume excess. Thus this study, along with earlier findings from our laboratory,14 15 19 provides direct evidence that the sympathetic nervous system plays a role in long-term regulation of body fluid volume by affecting changes in renal sympathetic nerve activity which, in turn, influence sodium excretion.
The few earlier studies that have examined the role of the renal nerves in adaptation to long-term alterations in sodium intake have produced conflicting results. In long-term balance studies, DiBona and Sawin8 reported that bilaterally denervated rats were unable to maintain sodium balance when challenged with a low sodium intake. In contrast, others have shown that bilateral renal denervation in rats9 and dogs10 does not affect the ability to achieve and maintain sodium balance after sodium restriction. Further, to our knowledge, there has been only 1 long-term study (3 days) that has evaluated the influence of the renal nerves on the sodium excretory response to increments in sodium intake.11 In that study, daily sodium balance was achieved within 3 days of high salt intake but in association with greater net retention of sodium in rats with bilateral renal denervation than in rats with renal nerves intact. Therefore it was concluded that the renal nerves may serve as a rapid controller of sodium excretion.
It is difficult to draw any conclusions regarding the role of the renal nerves in the long-term regulation of sodium excretion from studies in animals subjected to bilateral renal denervation. Clearly, total renal denervation may produce compensatory changes that could obscure conclusions regarding the importance of the renal nerves in long-term control of sodium excretion. For example, during increased salt intake, a greater rise in arterial pressure in animals with bilateral renal denervation than in intact controls could mask the normal natriuretic influence of the renal nerves. Therefore, to control for differences in arterial pressure and humoral agents, we used the split-bladder preparation in combination with unilateral renal denervation. With this experimental design, any compensatory responses would be similar in both kidneys because both kidneys are exposed to the same arterial pressure and humoral factors. Thus differences in sodium excretion between the kidneys during increased sodium intake must be due to the renal nerves. Importantly, with this powerful experimental design, we were able to demonstrate a long-term natriuretic influence of the renal nerves during increased sodium intake.
The present results, as well as earlier findings from our laboratory,14 15 19 provide compelling evidence that suppression of renal sympathetic nerve activity and attendant increments in renal excretory function serve as compensatory mechanisms for the long-term regulation of sodium balance and arterial pressure in response to sustained increments in body fluid volume and some forms of hypertension. In the present study, the magnitude of the fall in the DEN/INN for sodium excretion indicated that 15% to 20% more sodium was excreted chronically from innervated versus denervated kidneys during high salt intake. In a previous study, the renal nerves exerted an even more pronounced natriuretic response when hypertension was induced by long-term infusion of angiotensin II.14 Furthermore, measurements of renal norepinephrine overflow (an index of renal sympathetic nerve activity) are consistent with the contention that the natriuresis induced by the renal nerves during angiotensin II–hypertension is mediated by renal sympathoinhibition.19 Because changes in renal sympathetic nerve activity in response to increased sodium intake have not been reported, a second group of dogs was subjected to long-term adrenergic receptor blockade in the present study. Long-term adrenergic receptor blockade produced sustained hypotension and tachycardia (presumably caused by reduced parasympathetic activity). Moreover, long-term adrenergic receptor blockade led to a greater increase in sodium excretion in innervated versus denervated kidneys, as would be expected from interrupting the functional effects of the renal nerves. That the same relative changes in sodium excretion occurred in denervated and innervated kidneys during increased salt intake supports the notion that the long-term natriuretic effects of the renal nerves during high salt are mediated by sustained suppression of renal sympathetic nerve activity.
The present findings are consistent with our previous observations of the spilt-bladder preparation and indicate that the long-term natriuretic effects of the renal nerves are associated with parallel changes in potassium excretion and are mediated by actions on tubular function.14 15 Since the relative 24-hour excretion rates of creatinine in denervated and innervated kidneys were unchanged during increased salt intake, it is likely that the sustained effects of the renal nerves to promote sodium excretion were mediated by tubular events. This resembles the natriuretic response mediated acutely by baroreflex suppression of renal sympathetic nerve activity in that increments in sodium excretion occur in the absence of changes in GFR.1 2 Further, if the proximal tubule is the predominant site of neurally induced alterations in sodium reabsorption under long-term as well as short-term conditions, impaired sodium transport in this nephron segment could readily account for the greater excretion rate of potassium in innervated versus denervated kidneys during high salt intake (and long-term adrenergic receptor blockade). This is because potassium reabsorption is closely coupled to sodium reabsorption in the proximal tubule, and potassium secretion is strongly dependent on distal sodium delivery.20
Apparently, intrarenal mechanisms other than suppression of renal sympathetic nerve activity contributed to the differential excretion rates of sodium in denervated and innervated kidneys during increased sodium intake. During chronically increased sodium intake in the present study, as well as during renal sympathoinhibition associated with short-term volume expansion,4 21 more sodium was excreted from innervated versus denervated kidneys. This would suggest a persistent, compensatory salt-retaining effect induced by renal denervation that is not reversible by either short-term or long-term expansion of extracellular fluid volume. Although the factors that account for the defective natriuresis in denervated versus innervated kidneys during volume expansion have not been identified, the present findings during adrenergic receptor blockade, as well as other recent findings from our laboratory,15 indicate that renal denervation supersensitivity is not involved in the renal compensation that impairs sodium excretion after renal denervation.
The results of the present study are novel because they clearly demonstrate a sustained influence of the renal nerves to promote sodium excretion during increased sodium intake. Furthermore, these results contribute to an emerging body of evidence from long-term studies that indicates that neurally induced sodium excretion plays a compensatory role in long-term regulation of body fluid volume and arterial pressure during volume excess and hypertension.14 15 19 An important objective in future studies will be to determine whether baroreflex mechanisms, which mediate reflex changes in renal sympathetic nerve activity under short-term conditions, also account for sustained renal sympathoinhibition during long-term volume expansion. Resolution of this issue will be particularly relevant to understanding whether abnormal baroreflex control of renal sympathetic nerve activity plays a causal role in promoting salt and water retention in salt-sensitive hypertension and in congestive heart failure or whether the reported baroreflex dysfunction in these disease states is merely an associated finding.1 2
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
This research was supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant HL-51971.
Received September 15, 1998; first decision October 14, 1998; accepted October 23, 1998.
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
- Van Vliet BN, Hall JE, Lohmeier TE, Mizelle HL. Renal circulation. In: Bennett T, Gardiner S, eds. Nervous Control of Blood Vessels. London, UK: Harwood Academic Publishers; 1996:317–433.
-
DiBona GF, Kopp UC. Neural control of renal function.
Physiol Rev. 1997;77:75–197.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - DiBona GF, Sawin LL. Renal nerve activity in conscious rats during volume expansion and depletion. Am J Physiol. 1985;1985:248:F15–F23.
- Morita H, Vatner SF. Effects of volume expansion on renal nerve activity, renal blood flow, and sodium and water excretion in conscious dogs. Am J Physiol. 1985;249:F680–F687.
-
Miki K, Hayashida Y, Shiraki K. Cardiac-renal-neural
reflex plays a major role in natriuresis induced by left atrial
distension. Am J Physiol. 1993;264:R369–R375.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Badoer E, Moguilevski V, McGrath BP. Cardiac afferents play the dominant role in renal nerve inhibition elicited by volume expansion in the rabbit. Am J Physiol. 1998;274:R383–R388.
-
Cowley AW. Long-term control of arterial
blood pressure. Physiol Rev. 1992;72:231–300.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - DiBona GF, Sawin LL. Renal nerves in renal adaptation to dietary sodium restriction. Am J Physiol. 1983;245:F322–F328.
- Fernandez-Repollet E, Silva-Netto CR, Colindres RE, Gottschalk CW. Role of renal nerves in maintaining sodium balance in unrestrained conscious rats. Am J Physiol. 1985;249:F819–F826.
-
Mizelle HL, Hall JE, Woods LL, Montani JP, Dzielak DJ,
Pan YJ. Role of renal nerves in compensatory adaptation to chronic
reductions in sodium intake. Am J Physiol. 1987;252:F291–F298.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] -
Greenberg SG, Tershner S, Osborn JL. Neurogenic
regulation of rate of achieving sodium balance after increasing sodium
intake. Am J Physiol. 1991;261:F300–F307.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] -
Lohmeier TE, Reinhart GA, Mizelle HL, Montani JP,
Hester RL, Hord CE Jr, Hildebrandt DA. Influence of the renal nerves on
sodium excretion during progressive reductions in cardiac output.
Am J Physiol. 1995;269:R678–R690.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] -
Reinhart GA, Lohmeier TE, Mizelle HL. Temporal
influence of the renal nerves on renal excretory function during
chronic inhibition of nitric oxide synthesis. Hypertension. 1997;29:199–204.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] -
Lohmeier TE, Hildebrandt DA. Renal nerves promote
sodium excretion in angiotensin-induced hypertension.
Hypertension. 1998;31:429–434.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Lohmeier TE, Reinhart GA, Mizelle HL, Han M, Dean MM. Renal denervation supersensitivity revisited. Am J Physiol. 1998;275:R1239–R1246.
- Montani JP, Mizelle HL, Van Vliet BN, Adair TH. Advantages of continuous measurement of cardiac output 24 h a day. Am J Physiol. 1996;269:H696–H703.
- Haber ET, Koener T, Page LB, Kliman B, Purnode A. Application of radioimmunoassay of angiotensin I to physiological measurement of plasma renin activity in normal subjects. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1969;29:1349–1355.[Medline] [Order article via Infotrieve]
- Dunnett CW. New tables for multiple comparisons with a control. Biometrics. 1964;20:482–491.
-
Carroll RG, Lohmeier TE, Brown AJ. Chronic
angiotensin II infusion decreases renal
norepinephrine overflow in the conscious dog.
Hypertension. 1984;6:675–681.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] -
Giebish G. Renal potassium transport: mechanisms and
regulation. Am J Physiol. 1998;274:F817–F833.
[Abstract/Free Full Text] - Sadowski J, Kurkus J, Gellert R. Denervated and intact kidney responses to saline load in awake and anesthetized dogs. Am J Physiol. 1979;237:F262–F267.
This article has been cited by other articles:
 |
|
 |
|
  M. Kjolby and P. Bie Chronic activation of plasma renin is log-linearly related to dietary sodium and eliminates natriuresis in response to a pulse change in total body sodium Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, January 1, 2008; 294(1): R17 - R25. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T. E. Lohmeier, D. A. Hildebrandt, T. M. Dwyer, A. M. Barrett, E. D. Irwin, M. A. Rossing, and R. S. Kieval Renal Denervation Does Not Abolish Sustained Baroreflex-Mediated Reductions in Arterial Pressure Hypertension, February 1, 2007; 49(2): 373 - 379. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 V. Franco and S. Oparil Salt sensitivity, a determinant of blood pressure, cardiovascular disease and survival. J. Am. Coll. Nutr., June 1, 2006; 25(3 Suppl): 247S - 255S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. J. Barrett, S.-J. Guild, R. Ramchandra, and S. C. Malpas Baroreceptor Denervation Prevents Sympathoinhibition During Angiotensin II-Induced Hypertension Hypertension, July 1, 2005; 46(1): 168 - 172. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. E. Lohmeier, D. A. Hildebrandt, S. Warren, P. J. May, and J. T. Cunningham Recent insights into the interactions between the baroreflex and the kidneys in hypertension Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, April 1, 2005; 288(4): R828 - R836. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. N. Thrasher Effects of chronic baroreceptor unloading on blood pressure in the dog Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, April 1, 2005; 288(4): R863 - R871. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 E. Seeliger, J. L. Andersen, P. Bie, and H. W. Reinhardt Elevated renal perfusion pressure does not contribute to natriuresis induced by isotonic saline infusion in freely moving dogs J. Physiol., September 15, 2004; 559(3): 939 - 951. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. A. Head and S. L. Burke Sympathetic Responses to Stress and Rilmenidine in 2K1C Rabbits: Evidence of Enhanced Nonvascular Effector Mechanism Hypertension, March 1, 2004; 43(3): 636 - 642. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 F. Jacob, P. Ariza, and J. W. Osborn Renal denervation chronically lowers arterial pressure independent of dietary sodium intake in normal rats Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, June 1, 2003; 284(6): H2302 - H2310. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Damgaard, A. Gabrielsen, M. Heer, J. Warberg, P. Bie, N. J. Christensen, and P. Norsk Effects of sodium intake on cardiovascular variables in humans during posture changes and ambulatory conditions Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, December 1, 2002; 283(6): R1404 - R1411. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. F. DiBona and L. L. Sawin Effect of Arterial Baroreceptor Denervation on Sodium Balance Hypertension, October 1, 2002; 40(4): 547 - 551. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. N. Thrasher Unloading arterial baroreceptors causes neurogenic hypertension Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, April 1, 2002; 282(4): R1044 - R1053. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Ramchandra, C. J. Barrett, S.-J. Guild, and S. C. Malpas Is the chronically denervated kidney supersensitive to catecholamines? Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, February 1, 2002; 282(2): R603 - R610. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
U. C. Kopp, M. Z. Cicha, and L. A. Smith Endogenous angiotensin modulates PGE2-mediated release of substance P from renal mechanosensory nerve fibers Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, January 1, 2002; 282(1): R19 - R30. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. E. Lohmeier, J. R. Lohmeier, J. F. Reckelhoff, and D. A. Hildebrandt Sustained influence of the renal nerves to attenuate sodium retention in angiotensin hypertension Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, August 1, 2001; 281(2): R434 - R443. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. Simon and G. Illyes Structural Vascular Changes in Hypertension : Role of Angiotensin II, Dietary Sodium Supplementation, and Sympathetic Stimulation, Alone and in Combination in Rats Hypertension, February 1, 2001; 37(2): 255 - 260. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. E. Lohmeier, J. R. Lohmeier, A. Haque, and D. A. Hildebrandt Baroreflexes prevent neurally induced sodium retention in angiotensin hypertension Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, October 1, 2000; 279(4): R1437 - R1448. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
T. E. Lohmeier, H. L. Mizelle, G. A. Reinhart, and J.-P. Montani Influence of angiotensin on the early progression of heart failure Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, January 1, 2000; 278(1): R74 - R86. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. R. Brown, S.-G. Li, J. E. Lawler, and D. C. Randall Sympathetic control of BP and BP variability in borderline hypertensive rats on high- vs. low-salt diet Am J Physiol Regulatory Integrative Comp Physiol, September 1, 1999; 277(3): R650 - R657. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||