(Hypertension. 2001;37:66.)
© 2001 American Heart Association, Inc.
Scientific Contributions |
Rat Coronary Endothelial Cell Membrane Potential Responses During Hypertension
From the Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee.
Correspondence to Nancy J. Rusch, PhD, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Rd, Milwaukee, WI 53226. E-mail nrusch{at}mcw.edu
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Abstract—The purpose of this study was to provide the first membrane potential profile in coronary endothelial cells from normotensive sham-operated control and 1-kidney, 1-clip renal hypertensive rats. Dilator responses were assessed in cannulated coronary arteries from control and 1-kidney, 1-clip rats, and the perforated patch-clamp method was used to compare membrane potential responses between the intact endothelial cells. Under these conditions, acetylcholine (100 pmol/L to 10 µmol/L) induced similar large dilations of coronary arteries from control and 1-kidney, 1-clip rats that were associated with endothelial cell hyperpolarizing responses of 16±3 and 18±2 mV, respectively. Substance P (10 fmol/L to 1 nmol/L) and bradykinin (100 fmol/L to 10 nmol/L) also substantially dilated coronary arteries from control rats but only induced small (2 to 4 mV) endothelial cell hyperpolarizing responses. These dilations, which appeared independent of membrane potential changes, were highly blunted or absent in arteries from 1-kidney, 1-clip rats. Thus, dilator responses to acetylcholine that are associated with large endothelial hyperpolarizing responses are normal in the small coronary arteries of 1-kidney, 1-clip rats. However, dilator response to substance P and bradykinin, which apparently are not heavily dependent on endothelial cell hyperpolarizations, are selectively targeted for impairment in the coronary arteries of this model of hypertension
Key Words: endothelium • hypertension, renal • coronary artery disease • muscle, smooth, vascular • membranes • potassium channels
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Introduction |
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Endothelium-mediated dilations are often blunted in isolated arteries from different rat models of experimental hypertension and in arteries of human subjects with essential hypertension.1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Although the mechanisms that underlie this dilator dysfunction are complex, a reduced release of endothelium-derived relaxing factors appears to be a contributing factor.9 In this regard, the signaling pathways by which dilator substances release relaxing factors from endothelial cells appear to involve changes in membrane potential (Em).10 11 Specifically, dilator molecules bind to endothelial membrane receptors to activate plasmalemmal Ca2+-dependent K+ channels, resulting in K+ efflux and membrane hyperpolarization. This enhanced electrical gradient for Ca2+ influx, combined with the release of Ca2+ from intracellular stores, elevates cytosolic Ca2+ in the endothelial cell to activate the Ca2+-dependent enzymes required for the synthesis of dilator factors.10 11 12 Hence, hyperpolarization of the endothelial cell membrane is linked to the release of relaxing factors, and the failure of dilator substances to trigger hyperpolarizing responses may promote endothelial dilator dysfunction during hypertension.
In this study, we directly investigated this hypothesis by characterizing vasodilator and endothelial cell Em responses to acetylcholine (ACH), substance P (SP), and bradykinin (BK) in isolated coronary arteries from sham-operated normotensive control rats and 1-kidney, 1-clip (1K1C) hypertensive rats. Notably, small coronary arteries from 1K1C hypertensive rats show normal dilator responses to ACH but blunted endothelium-dependent dilations to SP and BK. Thus, they represent a unique model in which to examine if blunted endothelium-mediated dilations are associated with reduced endothelial cell hyperpolarizing responses. By adapting the perforated-patch, current-clamp technique to measure Em in intact endothelial cells of small coronary arteries, we were able to compare for the first time recordings of Em responses to ACH, SP, and BK in endothelial cells exposed to normal and high levels of blood pressure in vivo.
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Methods |
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Surgical Induction of Hypertension
Male Sprague-Dawley rats were obtained from Harlan Sprague Dawley, Inc. Protocols for animal use were approved by the Animal Care and Use Committee at our institution. At 8 weeks of age, the rats were fasted overnight and deeply anesthetized (100 mg/kg ketamine, 1 mg/kg acepromazine IM). For preparation of the 1K1C rat model, the right kidney was removed and the renal artery of the left kidney was clipped with a rectangular 0.3-mm silver clip near the aorta.13 Other rats had sham surgery in which the right kidney was manipulated and the left renal artery was cleaned of connective tissue but was left intact. The incisions were closed and the animals were monitored during recovery and allowed free access to food and water. At 10 to 14 days after surgery, the animals were anesthetized (20 mg/kg Ketamine IM; 50 mg/kg inactin IP). Mean arterial pressure, recorded by direct cannulation of the femoral artery, averaged 126±2 mm Hg in sham rats (n=38) and 166±3 mm Hg in 1K1C rats (n=36). Subsequently, the hearts were removed, rinsed, and placed in a dissecting dish in physiological salt solution (PSS).5
Diameter Recording in Cannulated Arteries
Second- and third-order branches of the left anterior descending
or septal coronary artery were identified under a dissecting
microscope and carefully dissected free. The arteries were cannulated
immediately on glass micropipettes in a perfusion-superfusion chamber
and pressurized at an intraluminal pressure of 80 mm Hg at
37°C. Internal diameters were monitored by videomicroscopy, and
cumulative concentration-response curves to ACH (100 pmol/L to 10
µmol/L), SP (10 fmol/L to 1 nmol/L), and BK (100 fmol/L to 10 nmol/L)
were performed as previously described.5 14 In a subset of
experiments, the endothelium was removed by the
intraluminal perfusion of an air bolus.5 14 At the end of
each experiment, all arteries were perfused and superfused with
Ca2+-free solution to determine the level of
Ca2+-dependent active tone.5
Mounting of Arteries in Silastic Chambers
In preparation for the recording of
endothelial cell Em responses,
arteries were cannulated and pressurized at 80 mm Hg as
described. In a subset of vessels, the endothelium was
removed by an air bolus. The vessels were then cut open lengthwise with
fine surgical scissors, avoiding contact with the
endothelial lining. Subsequently, the arteries were cut
from the glass cannulas, transferred to a 1-mL patch-clamp chamber
lined with a thin layer of silastic, and carefully positioned lumen
side up. The corners were secured with pins finely honed from
Teflon-coated tungsten wire with an initial diameter of 76 µm.
To confirm the presence of a confluent endothelial cell
layer in these pinned vessels, arterial segments from sham
and 1K1C rats were fixed with 1% glutaraldehyde in 0.1
mol/L cacodylate buffer and prepared for scanning electron microscopy
with methods previously described.15 The micrographs in
Figures 1A and 1B verify the presence of
intact endothelial cells in coronary arteries
from sham and 1K1C rats, respectively, that were secured for
patch-clamp recordings. In contrast, Figures 1C and 1D demonstrate that the endothelium was
extensively disrupted in similar arteries exposed to a luminal air
bolus. These findings were consistent between micrographs
obtained from 12 separate preparations. Thus, the luminal surface of
pinned coronary arterial segments retained a
confluent sheet of endothelial cells available to patch
pipettes for the recording of endothelial
Em levels.
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Recording of Em in Intact Endothelial
Cells
Arteries secured to the silastic base of a patch-clamp chamber
were superfused at room temperature with a bath solution composed of
(in mmol/L) NaCl 135, KCl 4, CaCl2 2,
MgCl2 1, glucose 10, and HEPES 10 (pH 7.4).
Maximally effective concentrations of ACH (1 µmol/L), SP (1
nmol/L), or BK (1 nmol/L) were infused into the bath chamber by a
plastic 5-mL syringe, and outflow was established
simultaneously by a second syringe. With amphotericin B
used as a perforating agent, the perforated-patch, current-clamp
technique was used to measure the level of Em in
intact endothelial cells, as described in detail by
Marchenko and Sage.16 Briefly, heat-polished patch
pipettes with tip resistances between 2 and 5 M
were filled with
pipette solution composed of (in mmol/L) KCl 145,
MgCl2 1, EGTA 0.5, and HEPES 10 (pH 7). Pipette
tips were dipped briefly into drug-free pipette solution, back-filled
with the same solution containing 300 µmol/L amphotericin B, and
then gently touched to the luminal surface of the pinned arteries.
Slight suction was applied to obtain high resistance seals (
5 G).
Typically, electrical access to the cell interior was obtained within
several minutes after seal formation, and stable
Em values were observed after 10 to 15 minutes.
Membrane potentials were recorded with current-clamp methods by a
List EPC-7 amplifier (List Instruments) controlled by a microcomputer
equipped with a Digidata 1200 interface and pClamp software (Axon
Instruments).
Drugs
All drugs were purchased from Sigma Chemical Co. ACH, SP, and BK
were dissolved as 1-mmol/L aqueous stock solutions in PSS. Amphotericin
B was dissolved as a 65-µmol/L stock in dimethyl sulfoxide for direct
dilution into the pipette solution.
Data Analysis
Data are expressed as mean±SEM. Diameter values
represent the measurement of internal diameter in microns. A
replication factor of 6 to 9 was performed for isolated vessel
protocols. Significant differences between rat preparations or between
control and drug-induced diameter or Em responses
were determined by either Student’s t test or ANOVA with
repeated measures, with a subsequent Duncan’s test. Significance was
accepted at P<0.05.
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Results |
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Resting Diameter and Ca2+-Dependent Tone
Small coronary arteries from sham and 1K1C rats showed similar resting diameters averaging 121±2 µm (n=7) and 139±16 µm (n=9), respectively. At the end of each experiment, arteries were perfused and superfused with Ca2+-free PSS to assess their level of active tone. Under these conditions, the diameter of arteries from sham and 1K1C animals increased comparably by 57% and 52% to 190±6 µm and 211±17 µm, respectively.
Dilator and Endothelial Em Responses
to ACH
To confirm earlier findings showing that dilator responses to ACH
are normal in small coronary arteries of hypertensive
rats,5 we performed concentration-response curves to
evaluate endothelial dilator responses to ACH. Figure 2A shows that ACH (100 pmol/L to 10
µmol/L) progressively and similarly dilated coronary arteries
from sham and 1K1C rats by a maximum of 59±9 µm and 49±8
µm, respectively (n=7, 8). Removal of the vascular
endothelium by an air bolus abolished these dilator
responses (n=6 each; not shown). Arteries from 1K1C rats showed
slightly blunted dilations in response to high ACH concentrations, but
this effect was not statistically different from sham responses.
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Subsequently, current-clamp Em responses to 1 µmol/L ACH were compared between the intact coronary endothelial cells of sham and 1K1C rats. In all endothelial cells studied, resting Em averaged -42±1 mV (n=41) and -38±1 mV (n=31) in sham and 1K1C rats, respectively, showing a small but significant depolarization in the endothelium exposed to hypertension. However, the original traces in Figures 2B and 2C, respectively, show that ACH (1 µmol/L) induced large and similar endothelial cell hyperpolarizing responses of 11 mV and 12 mV in arteries from sham and 1K1C rats. In all preparations, the average amplitude of the hyperpolarizing responses to 1 µmol/L ACH was 16±3 mV and 18±2 mV in coronary endothelial cells from sham and 1K1C rats, respectively (n=13, 14). Thus, the pronounced dilator responses to ACH observed in the isolated coronary arteries from sham and 1K1C rats were associated with large endothelial hyperpolarizing responses in both vascular preparations.
Dilator and Endothelial Em Responses
to SP
Although small coronary arteries from 1K1C rats dilated
normally in response to ACH, they showed severely impaired dilator
responses to SP. Figure 3A shows that SP
(10 fmol/L to 1 nmol/L) maximally dilated the arteries from sham
animals by 29±4 µm, whereas arteries from 1K1C rats only
dilated by 10±3 µm. Removal of the endothelium
abolished these dilations (n=6 each; data not shown). Surprisingly,
Figure 3B shows that 1 nmol/L SP only slightly hyperpolarized
the coronary endothelial cells from sham rats,
although it substantially dilated the isolated arteries by 29±4
µm. Figure 3C demonstrates that 1 nmol/L SP also slightly
hyperpolarized the coronary endothelial cells
of 1K1C rats, even though the dilator response to the same SP
concentration was highly blunted in these isolated arteries. Overall,
SP (1 nmol/L) induced small but significant hyperpolarizing responses
averaging 2±1 mV in endothelial cells from both sham
and 1K1C rats (n=7, 10). Perfusion of drug-free PSS did not alter
resting Em values, providing assurance that the
perfusion process per se did not induce artifactual changes in
Em levels (n=5, data not shown).
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Dilator and Endothelial Cell Em
Responses to BK
Dilator responses to BK also were highly blunted in
coronary arteries of 1K1C rats. Figure 4A shows that BK (100 fmol/L to 10
nmol/L) maximally dilated arteries from sham rats by 22±5 µm,
and this response was abolished by endothelium removal
(n=6; not shown). In contrast, coronary arteries from 1K1C rats
failed to dilate during the application of BK (n=7, 9). Subsequently,
current-clamp experiments revealed only slight hyperpolarizing
responses to BK, even in the normal endothelial cells
from the sham arteries. The original recording in Figure 4B shows that 1 nmol/L BK induced a hyperpolarizing response of
only 2 mV in a coronary endothelial cell from a
sham rat, although the cannulated arteries from these animals dilated
substantially to this stimulus. Figure 4C shows that 1 nmol/L BK
also slightly hyperpolarized the endothelial cell of a
coronary artery from a 1K1C rat, although these arteries failed
to dilate to BK. Overall, coronary endothelial
cells from sham and 1K1C rats hyperpolarized by 4±2 mV and 3±1 mV in
response to 1 nmol/L BK, respectively (n=7, 13).
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Discussion |
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Endothelial Cell Hyperpolarizing Responses to ACH Persist in Hypertension
Reports from several laboratories indicate that ACH activates K+ channels in the endothelial cell membrane to induce hyperpolarization.10 16 17 18 19 This hyperpolarizing response has been linked to the elevation of cytosolic Ca2+ levels in the endothelial cell and appears to be obligatory for the release of dilator factors.12 18 19 For example, in bioassay experiments of rabbit aorta, Demirel et al10 have shown that perfusion of ACH through endothelium-intact donor rings results in the relaxation of recipient rings denuded of endothelium. In this preparation, pharmacological block of K+ channels in the ACH-stimulated donor segment inhibited the downstream relaxation of the recipient ring, inferring that ACH activates endothelial K+ channels to mediate the release of dilator factors. Our finding that the large hyperpolarizing response to ACH in the coronary endothelial cells of sham and 1K1C rats was correlated with a pronounced dilation of the cannulated arteries also links the activation of endothelial K+ channels to dilator factor release and provides the first direct evidence that the intricate signaling cascade that links membrane hyperpolarization to the release of vasodilator factors is not impaired in the coronary endothelial cells of 1K1C rats.
Notably, the preservation of endothelial cell hyperpolarizing responses to ACH during hypertension may represent a unique feature of the coronary circulation. The evidence for this includes our finding that small coronary arteries from 1K1C rats dilate normally to ACH and earlier studies that also demonstrated normal dilator responses to ACH in isolated coronary arteries from spontaneously hypertensive rats and salt-sensitive Dahl hypertensive rats.5 20 In contrast, blunted ACH-induced dilations, consistent with the presence of an endothelial dilator defect, have been reported in aortic vascular segments of the same animals and in small arteries from the cerebral and mesenteric beds.1 2 6 It is unknown if these dilator defects in other vascular beds are related to an inability of ACH to initiate normal endothelial cell hyperpolarizing responses.
Impaired Dilations to SP and BK Are Not Linked to Impaired
Electrical Responses
Although SP and BK substantially dilated the small
coronary arteries of sham rats, only weak hyperpolarizing
responses (2 to 4 mV) were recorded in intact coronary
endothelial cells. These data imply that membrane
hyperpolarization is not the main signaling
mechanism by which SP and BK mediate the release of dilator factors
from the rat coronary endothelium. This concept
also is supported by our finding that although small hyperpolarizing
responses to SP and BK persisted in the coronary
endothelial cells of 1K1C rats, the dilator responses
to SP and BK were highly impaired or absent. Thus, these vasodilator
peptides apparently induce the release of relaxing factors from the
coronary endothelium by transduction pathways
independent of Em. This alternative signaling
pathway may involve receptor-associated GTP-binding regulatory
proteins, and the downregulation of their expression or function in the
endothelial cell membrane may be a mechanism that
contributes to vasodilator defects in animals and humans with chronic
hypertension.12 21 22
Depolarized Resting Em in Intact
Endothelium of 1K1C Hypertensive Rats
The resting Em level in coronary
endothelial cells from 1K1C rats was depolarized by 4
mV compared with cells from sham animals. This finding raised the
possibility that the loss of SP and BK dilations in the
coronary arteries from the 1K1C rats was caused by an inability
to hyperpolarize these endothelial cells to the
negative Em level required for dilator factor
release. However, in several arteries from 1K1C rats, we added a
"priming dose" of ACH to slightly dilate the vessel before the
addition of SP and BK, and this maneuver did not restore normal dilator
responses to the peptides (data not shown). This observation, combined
with the normal dilator responses of the coronary arteries from
1K1C rats to ACH, suggests that the depolarized
Em level in the endothelial cells
of the hypertensive animals did not impair the release of dilator
factors under our conditions. Thus, although the
endothelial cell membrane may be susceptible to
electrical remodeling during hypertension, whereby the ion channel
profile that normally regulates the resting Em
level is altered, the functional significance of this observation is
unknown.
Hyperpolarizing Responses to SP and BK Differ Between Cultured and
Intact Endothelial Cells
In cultured endothelial cells from porcine or
guinea pig coronary arteries, SP and BK induce large
hyperpolarizing responses between 23 and 37 mV, as measured by
intracellular microelectrodes or whole-cell patch-clamp
methods.23 24 25 These large Em
changes to SP and BK clearly contrast with the very slight
hyperpolarizing responses to these peptides that we observed in
current-clamped intact endothelial cells. They also
contrast with the findings of Wang et al19 in freshly
isolated current-clamped endothelial cells of rat aorta
studied by the perforated-patch method. In this
endothelial preparation, BK (400 nmol/L) also elicited
only a slight hyperpolarizing response, whereas ACH (10 µmol/L)
induced pronounced hyperpolarizations averaging 51
mV in the intact endothelial cells.19
Notably, the perforated-patch method as used in this study provides
several distinct advantages over the use of microelectrode or standard
whole-cell patch-clamp recording for monitoring
Em levels in endothelial
cells.16 First, in contrast to standard whole-cell
approaches, the perforated patch method permits electrical access to
the cell interior for the dynamic recording of
Em responses without interrupting the structural
integrity and cytosolic signaling of the endothelial
cell. Second, when applied to the intact endothelium,
it circumvents damage incurred from enzymatic dispersion and allows
endothelial cell-to-cell contacts and
endothelial cell–vascular smooth muscle interactions
to remain intact. Third, by measuring Em
responses in intact endothelial cells, phenotypic
changes observed in cultured endothelial cells are
avoided. Thus, the perforated-patch method is uniquely suited to
compare dynamic Em responses between normal and
diseased endothelial cells that can retain their full
complement of cytosolic signaling molecules and intercellular
contacts.
Coronary Endothelium-Derived Relaxing
Factors
Several relaxing factors are released by the coronary
endothelium including nitric oxide, prostacyclin, and
cytochrome P450 products derived from arachidonic
acid.5 26 27 28 The regulation of the production and
release of these relaxing factors by ACH, SP, and BK is complex and is
initiated by the activation of membrane receptors linked to differing
G-protein–signaling cascades, which ultimately results in the
stimulation of enzymes specific for the production of each
factor.9 In this regard, our previous study of
coronary microvessels from Dahl rats has shown that
pharmacological block of nitric oxide and prostacyclin synthesis had
little effect on ACH-, SP-, or BK-induced relaxations, whereas the
addition of octadecynoic acid, an inhibitor of cytochrome
P450, markedly attenuated these relaxations.5 Thus, a
cytochrome P450 product rather than nitric oxide or prostacyclin
appears to mediate the dilator responses to ACH, SP, and BK in small
rat coronary arteries. These findings, together with those of
the present study, imply that the release of the same dilator
factor can be achieved by either hyperpolarization
of the endothelial cell membrane (ACH) or by pathways
that operate independent of Em change to mediate
dilator factor release (SP and BK).
Significance
The results of this study provide the first evidence that
hyperpolarizing responses are intact in rat coronary
endothelial cells exposed to increased blood pressure
in vivo. Additionally, the lack of correlation between vasodilator
responses and endothelial cell Em
responses to SP and BK suggests that SP and BK mediate dilation of
small coronary arteries by endothelial cell
transduction pathways that are distinct from membrane
hyperpolarization. This pathway rather than
electrical signaling may be vulnerable to damage during hypertension.
In this regard, it is possible that the impaired dilator responses to
the native coronary peptides SP and BK may eliminate important
dilator influences in the coronary microvasculature and thereby
favor increased vascular resistance, whereas the persistent
responsiveness of the endothelium to ACH may preserve
dilator function during increased parasympathetic drive.29
The importance of these findings in the human coronary
circulation is unclear at present, although SP and BK appear to be
involved in the regulation of resting blood flow and flow-dependent
dilation, and a reduced dilation to SP has been described in the
coronary microcirculation of hypertensive
humans.8 30 31 Therefore, further characterization of the
signaling pathways in endothelial cells that are
involved in the release of dilator factors may clarify the complex
patterns of endothelial dilator defects observed in the
heart during hypertension and may provide a conceptual framework for
designing drug therapies to restore normal
endothelium-dependent dilations to the coronary
circulation in this disease.
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Acknowledgments |
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This research was supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grant R01-HL-59238 from the National Institutes of Health (N.J. Rusch). K. Gauthier was a predoctoral fellow of the American Heart Association–Wisconsin Affiliate. We gratefully acknowledge the surgical expertise of Anne Runnells in the preparation of the rat models and the technical support of Janet De Bruin with scanning electron microscopy. We thank Carol Gross for preparing the manuscript.
Received May 2, 2000; first decision May 12, 2000; accepted July 31, 2000.
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T. Szado, M. McLarnon, X. Wang, and C. van Breemen Role of sarcoplasmic reticulum in regulation of tonic contraction of rabbit basilar artery Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, October 1, 2001; 281(4): H1481 - H1489. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Liu, K. Terata, N. J. Rusch, and D. D. Gutterman High Glucose Impairs Voltage-Gated K+ Channel Current in Rat Small Coronary Arteries Circ. Res., July 20, 2001; 89(2): 146 - 152. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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